Memory

1. Memory AP Psychology—Chapter 6

2. What is Memory? • The persistence of learning over time

3. The Three Processes of Memory • Encoding:the information gets into our brains in a way that allows it to be stored • Storage:the information is held in a way that allows it to later be retrieved • Retrieval: reactivating and recalling the information, producing it in a form similar to what was encoded Encoding Storage Retrieval

4. Encoding Memory • Automatic processing – unconscious processing of incidental information and well-learned information; does not require effort. • For example, remembering what well-learned words mean or remembering who you saw on your way to class.

5. Encoding: Automatic Processing • Space • Where information is in a textbook (page, side, paragraph) • Time • Sequence of events: If you lose something, you can retrace your steps to find it. • Frequency • How many times something happens, ex: “That’s the third time this song has played today!” • Well-learned Information • Registering meaning of words in your native language Subliminal Advertising

6. Encoding Memory • Effortful (Controlled) processing– encoding that requires effort and conscious attention. • For example, learning material for a class. • Often produces durable and accessible memories

7. Improving Memory—Effortful Processing Examples: • Chunking (grouping) • Mnemonics: images, maps, and peg-words • Hierarchies/categories • Rehearsal, especially distributed practice • Deep processing • Semantic processing • Making information personally meaningful  Can you remember this list? • Effortful processing strategy, a way to encode information into memory to keep it from decaying and make it easier to retrieve. • Requires Rehearsal (Conscious repetition) • Amount remembered depends on amount of time spent learning. • Effortful processing is also known as studying.

8. Effortful Processing Strategies Rehearsal • Rehearse....Rehearse.....Rehearse!! • 2 Types of Rehearsal: • Maintenance Rehearsal: repetitive review of information • Ex: Repeating a phone # • Elaborative Rehearsal: repetition plus analysis....information is made meaningful • Ex: remembering that the attack on Pearl Harbor was December 7th, because your favorite numbers are 7 and 12.

9. Effortful Processing Strategies Massed and Distributed Practice • Massed Practice refers to cramming information all at once. • It is not time-effective. • The spacing effect:You will develop better retention and recall, especially in the long run, if you use the same amount of study time spread out over many shorter sessions. (Distributed Practice) • This doesn’t mean you have to study every day. • The longer the time between study sessions, the better the long-term retention, and the fewer sessions you need!

10. Effortful Processing StrategiesChunking • Why are credit card numbers broken into groups of four digits? Four “chunks” are easier to encode (memorize) and recall than 16 individual digits.  Memorize: ACPCVSSUVROFLNBAQ XIDKKFCFBIANA • Chunking:organizing data into manageable units XID KKF CFB IAN AAC PCV S SU VRO FNB AQ • Chunking works even better if we can assemble information into meaningful groups: X IDK KFC FBI BA NAACP CVS SUV ROFL NBA Q X IDK KFC FBI BA NAACP CVS SUV ROFL NBA Q

11. Improving Short-Term Memory • Chunks: Manageable and meaningful units, easily encoded, stored, retrieved • Ex:  Social Security Number (three chunks), Phone Number (2- 3 Chunks) • What are some other things we chunk?

12. Why is encoding important? What we encode and how well we encode it determines what we remember.

13. Levels of Processing Activity • Activity One • Decide whether each word has double letters • Ex: CUDDLE has a double D and NEED has a double E • If the word does have a double letter, put a check in the yes column, if not, put a check in the no column

14. Levels of Processing Activity • Activity Two • Decide whether each word fits into a broader category • Ex: RABBIT fits into the animal category, and SPIDER fits into the insect category • If the word does fit into a broader category, put a check in the yes column, if not, put a check in the no column

15. Levels of Processing Activity • Activity Three • Decide whether you have had a personal experience with the object or event the word represents • Ex: for the word SPIDER you would check yes if you have ever been bitten by a spider. If you have never been bitten by a spider, you would check no. • If you have had a personal experience with the word, put a check in the yes column, if not, put a check in the no column

16. And now…. • Write Down as many words as you can remember from each list!

17. The Answers

18. Why is Encoding Important? Craik and Lockhart: • Levels of Processing Approach: brain encodes info in different ways, extents, and levels • art, words, and meaning • When you encode info one way, you do not encode it in other ways • Ex: How many words do you recall from the memory  experiments? • Info was not encoded for meaning, but only to quickly  repeat/recall them

19. Encoding • Semantic Encoding— thinking about the meaning of the word helps in retention. • Acoustic Encoding (thinking about the sound of a word) and Visual Encoding (thinking about the appearance of a word are less helpful • Self-Reference Effect— Weare more likely to remember things that we feel relate to us • You will remember your psychology better if you relate it to your own personal experiences (Application!)

20. Effortful Processing Strategies Deep/Semantic Processing We are more likely to retain it if we deeply process even a simple word list by focusing on the semantics (meaning) of the words. “Shallow,” unsuccessful processing refers to memorizing the appearance or sound of words.

21. Encoding Specificity Principle • Encoding Specificity Principle: • Effectiveness of retrieval cue depends on how well it matches up with originally encoded info • Ex:  Learning to type on a Mac and then having to write a paper on a PC

22. Encoding Specificity Principle •  Meeting someone at your dentist's office and then seeing them at Meijer— • you will be more likely to recognize them if their surroundings match how you originally met them • (i.e. toothbrush aisle)

23. Encoding: Confirmation Bias • Confirmation Bias: The tendency to notice and encode info that confirms beliefs that are already held. • Ex:  Political Candidates and television ads

24. Storage • Processes of maintaining or keeping information readily available • Where information is held, or the memory stores • 3 Stage Storage System: • SENSORY • SHORT-TERM WORKING MEMORY • LONG-TERM MEMORY

25. Sensory Memory • Storage mechanism that performs initial encoding and provides brief storage • Very brief, 1-3 seconds • think lightning--a quick flash, brief image, then gone • Example: hearing a song, or touching a piece of silk

26. Sensory Memory--Iconic • Iconic Memory is a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli • Our dominant sense is vision, called visual capture. • There is much more to see, which is why iconic memory has to be very brief, about a few tenths of a second

27. Sensory Memory--Echoic • Echoic memory is a momentary sensory memory of auditorymemory • Echoic memories last about 3-4 seconds, • which is why when you repeat terms you are able to retain the terms longer- lasts longer than just looking at a term.

28. Short Term Memory • Active, readily available information you retain temporarily (no longer than one minute) • Also known as: • Short term storage • Temporary memory • Primary memory • Working memory

29. Short Term Memory—What does it do? • Short-term memory has two primary tasks: • 1-To store new information briefly • 2-To work on that (and other) information • Short-term memory is thought to only hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of information • Memory Span: Information only lasts about 20-30 seconds Let’s Test our Short-term Memory!

30. sunshine

31. mirror

32. wheel

33. orange

34. tea

35. calm

36. fountain

37. library

38. mostly

39. pyramid

40. jeans

41. airplane

42. tired

43. dog

44. pencil

45. soccer

46. Finished! How many did you remember?

47. Testing Short-Term Memory • Statistics for this same test: • *The average 20-year-old remembers 7 of the 15 words •  *The average 80-year-old remembers 4 of them • How many of you remembered… • Sunshine? • Airplane? • Soccer?

48. Why? • Serial Position Effect: People recall more words either at the beginning or the end of a list than they do words in the middle • Two types: • 1-Primacy Effect • People remember early items better • 2-Recency Effect • People remember the last one or two words too

49. Long Term Memory • Storage Mechanism that keeps a relatively permanent record of information. • Brains seem to have an unlimited capacity for long-term memory

50. Types of Long-Term Memory • Implicit (Non-Declarative) • involve procedural information containing motor skills and procedures that do not require active thinking in order perform- • these memories are stored in thecerebellum • Implicit memories are “implied” memories, which means “you just know” how to do, like walk or ride a bike.