Memory

1. Memory Lecture Notes

2. One Model of Memory Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971) Three stages for storage of information: Sensory Register Short-term memory Long-term memory

3. Memory Storage Sensory Register .5 to 1 second exact duplicate of external stimuli Short-term memory (STM) Rehearsal / organization of material keeps it in longer Limited amount of space available (~7 + 2 items) Long-term memory (LTM) May or may not be permanent Unlimited

4. Another Model of Memory Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that memories differ in the extent to which they have been processed, as opposed to being stored in different memory stores (like LTM vs. STM) Called the Levels of Processing View They suggest that all events result in a permanent memory but the strength of the trace depends upon the level of processing the memory received Higher levels of processing result in a higher likelihood of being recalled

5. Some Types of Memory

6. Memory There are many models of memory Most satisfactory approach at the moment may be to combine ideas from the Stage Model and from some of the Information Processing Models STM and LTM may not be locations, but rather different states of activation, with control over what becomes active and the type of processing

7. Memory Acquisition and Retrieval Memory acquisition = encoding and storing into memory Retrieval = ability to recall or recognize information There is a strong interdependence between encoding and retrieval

8. Encoding and Retrieval Elaborative rehearsal or deep processing = better retrieval (recall or recognition) Sheer exposure or familiarity = good recognition performance The better we understand something, the better we remember it

9. Encoding Strategies Rote Rehearsal � least effective Re-present the material to yourself Repeat it or read it or listen to it, etc., over and over

10. Encoding Strategies Chunking = condensing a larger amount of material into a smaller package; often an automatic process in working memory but a person can learn to use it Chunk letters into words, words into sentences, and sentences into chunks of related ideas Works better if you make up your own chunks Works better if size of chunk is 6 items or less Goal is to turn meaningless info into a unit that has meaning for you Chunking will increase STM (~3 to 9 chunks depending upon size of chunk)

11. Encoding Strategies Organization = to arrange according to some system Could chunk related material into groups Could organize the material into headings and subheadings, or key concepts Works best if you use up to but no more than 6 types of headings or concepts Create an outline of the material

12. Encoding Strategies Imagery = create visual (mental) images of the information Visual images are generally remembered more effectively than verbal or other types of info (e.g., Paivio and colleagues, 1969, 1986) Although we do tend to code new information, including visual info, acoustically

13. Encoding Strategies Elaboration = relating events to or organizing them with other events already in memory instead of condensing down into a smaller package, expand out into a larger package that is more meaningful for you (create a story with a list of words) Put the info into your own words

14. Encoding Strategies Mnemonics = techniques to enhance the storage and retrieval of information; some Method of Loci � Establish an ordered series of known locations Separate info and associate one aspect with each location Follow the proper order of mental images to recall each segment Peg Word System � requires much practice Learn the peg Use the peg to code information Decode the peg word to recall info correctly

15. Memory Retrieval and Forgetting Forgetting = deterioration in learned behavior following a period without practice Retrieval Failure will lead to forgetting; having the proper retrieval cue is critical Failure to Encode properly will also lead to forgetting

16. Memory Retrieval and Forgetting Decay or Fading With the passage of time the record decays or fades Evidence for this is sketchy; clearly we remember less with the passage of time What�s not clear is whether the forgetting is due to decay or other factors (like interference)

17. Memory Retrieval and Forgetting Distortion theory or Memory Reconstruction Memory of an experience is often inaccurate or incomplete; in order to make it logical or realistic we may add or delete information Or recall may be influenced in order to establish a memory consistent with the individual�s view of the world It is called memory reconstruction

18. Memory Reconstruction Bartlett (1932) had subjects read a folktale and were then tested for recall immediately, hours or days later. Subjects reconstructed their memories to be more consistent with their own cultural expectations What must have happened vs. what actually happened Loftus (1980, 1991) has studied eyewitness testimony extensively. She contends that a memory can also be altered by information received from others

19. Memory Reconstruction Loftus (1975) had subjects watch a series of slides showing a red sports car headed for a collision. Half saw a Stop sign and half saw a Yield sign. All were asked afterwards (half of each group) if they saw the �___� sign. One week later they were shown both slides and asked to pick the one they saw last week. Those asked the correct question were accurate 75% of the time, the ones asked the incorrect question were only 40% accurate in picking the correct slide

20. Memory Reconstruction Loftus and Zanni (1975) found that the wording of the question was critical: Did you see the broken headlight? Did you see a broken headlight? Subjects who heard the word �the� were much more likely to say that they did see a broken headlight Recent evidence suggests that subjects receiving misleading information cannot discriminate between the real and suggested events (Chandler, 1991; Schooler, Gerhard, & Loftus, 1986)

21. Memory Retrieval and Forgetting Degree of learning The better something is learned, the less likely it is to be forgotten; overlearning Degree of learning can be measured by number of trials, or it can be measured by degree of fluency (number of correct responses per minute)

22. Memory Retrieval and Forgetting Proactive Interference or Prior Learning Previous learning can interfere with recall Material is forgotten because other material that is similar in some way interfered by distorting the material you�re trying to learn now Learn A-B list first. Then learn an A-C list of paired associates. Memory for the A-B list intrudes and interferes with recall of the A-C list of words

23. Memory Retrieval and Forgetting Retroactive Interference or Subsequent Learning Current learning can interfere with recall of older material Material is forgotten because new material that is similar in some way interfered by replacing the material you�ve already learned Learn A-B list first. Then learn an A-C list of paired associates. Memory for the A-C list intrudes and interferes with recall of the A-B list of words

24. Memory Retrieval and Forgetting Additional variables: Massed vs. Distributed Practice: Less interference occurs with distributed practice. Repression theory: Very emotional memories may be repressed. Also referred to as Motivated Forgetting. Context effects: the contextual cues serve as retrieval cues, so if the context (internal or external) changes, then performance suffers. Also called cue-dependent forgetting.