Motivation

1. Motivation

2. Motivation:an internal energetic condition that activates goal-oriented behavior and gives it direction. I. Theories of Motivation A. Evolutionary Theory:organisms are born with preprogrammed tendencies to respond to certain events in certain ways. • 1) Instinct: an inherited disposition within a species to • activate specific behavior patterns that are designed to • reach specific goals. B. Drive Reduction Theory:organisms learn to engage in behaviors that have the effect of reducing drives. • 1) Drive: a state of unrest or irritation that energizes one • behavior after another until one of them removes the irritation.

3. C. Homeostasis Theory:organisms consciously and automatically function to maintain an optimum level of biological conditions. D. Incentive Theory:external stimuli pull organisms toward certain behaviors. E. Optimal Arousal Theory:the assumption that there is an optimal level of arousal that organisms strive to maintain. When arousal exceeds the optimal level, an organism has the tendency to withdraw from the source of the stimulation. Conversely, when arousal is below the optimal level, an organism has the tendency to approach available sources of stimulation.

4. F. Maslow’s Theory of a Hierarchy of Needs:once one’s needs are met at any given level of the hierarchy, one’s attention is drawn to the needs of the level above it. Transcendence: to step beyond Self-Actualization, to achieve higher states of consciousness, and a cosmic vision of one’s part in the universe. Self-Actualization: to strive for and to achieve one’s fullest potential. Aesthetic: creativity, beauty, and a sense of order Cognitive: thought stimulation and to contemplate one’s existence Esteem: to like oneself, to see oneself as competent, and to be liked by others Attachment: to belong, to affiliate with others, love, and to be loved Safety:protection from danger, for security, comfort, and freedom from fear Biological: basics such ashunger and thirst; require satisfaction before other needs can begin operation

5. Abraham Maslow’s Characteristics of a • Self-Actualized Person: • An ability to perceive reality accurately. • 2. Independence, spontaneity, and creativity. • 3. Treating others with unconditional positive regard. • 4. An outlook that emphasizes problem-solving. • 5. Enjoyment of life. • 6. A good sense of humor.

6. II. Motivational Factors A. Biological:level of physical energy. B. Cognitive:level of interest. C. Emotional:level of fear, anger, sadness, happiness, etc. D. Social: 1) level of self-esteem and self-efficacy. 2) able to tolerate failure and not become overconfident by success. E. Personality:internal versus external locus of control. An individual’s belief that the outcomes in one’s life are primarily determined by one’s own actions and choices (internal locus of control) or by environmental factors, such as other people, physical aspects of the world, and/or spiritual forces (external locus of control).

7. III. Hunger Motivation • Why do we eat when we are not hungry and why do we • prefer the taste of foods rich in fat? 1) Evolutionary Argument… 1. We humans (and our ancestors) have spent most of our existence living in a world where food was scarce. So, if we came across an abundance of food, we would eat as much as possible because it was unknown when we would get our next meal. 2. Foods rich in fat (such as meat) contain more calories than foods less rich in fat (such as many vegetables). Thus we prefer fatty foods because they provide more sustaining energy than foods low in fat. B. Why are these inherited taste preferences a problem for many people today and how can we combat them?

8. C. Cultural Influences on Food Preferences D. Eating Too Much or Too Little • 1) Obesity:the excessive accumulation of body fat. • Obesity is a serious health risk because it increases an • individual’s risk of: • Diabetes, Coronary diseases • Some types of cancer, Sleep apnea • Influences on Obesity • Genetics • Lifestyle factors • Solutions for Obesity • Change in amount of and types of food consumed • Exercise • Medications, Surgical Procedures

9. 2) Anorexia Nervosa:eating disorder characterized by self-starvation. Self-starvation. Distorted body image. Constantly dieting and believing one is fat. May cause irregularity or cessation of menstruation. Often good students and ‘perfectionists’. Predominantly a female disorder. 3) Bulimia Nervosa:eating disorder in which a person regularly eats huge quantities of food and then purges the body by laxatives, induced vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise. 4) Treatment and Outcomes of Anorexia and Bulimia Immediate goal is to get patient to eat and gain weight. Patients may be hospitalized if severely malnourished. Behavior Therapy – reward eating. Cognitive Therapy – change body image.

10. IV. Sexual Motivation • Who’s doing it with who and what are they doing? 1) Sexual identity: Achieved by seeing oneself as a sexual being, recognizing one's sexual orientation, coming to terms with sexual desires, and forming romantic or sexual attachments. 2) Sexual orientation:Focus of consistent sexual, romantic, and affectionate interest, either heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual. 3) Biological arguments for homosexuality… Hypothalamus Evidence Right Hemisphere Evidence Twin Studies

11. Differences between men and women regarding preferences for various sexual acts.

12. V. Achievement Motivation • What’s motivating you to achieve? 1) Extrinsic Motivation:Refers to things that are external to oneself, such as money or rewards. 2) Intrinsic Motivation:Refers to things that are internal, such as pride of accomplishment. Impact on Achievement at School, Work, or with Creative/Leisure Activities

13. B. Success also depends on setting the right goals and effective time management. C. Regarding time management, sustained success is usually the result of planning ahead and working on tasks at a moderate and steady speed.

14. D. Flow: the mental state of operation in which the person is fully immersed in what he or she is doing by a feeling of energized focus, full involvement, and success in the process of the activity. The challenge and skill levels should be high. • The experience of Flow includes… • A loss of the feeling of self-consciousness, attention is directed • outwards towards their activity. • 2) Distorted sense of time, one's subjective experience of time is • altered as people become absorbed in their activity. • 3) A sense of personal control over the situation or activity. • 4) The activity is intrinsically rewarding, so there is an • effortlessness stream of action. E. Delay of Gratification: the ability to wait in order to obtain something that one wants. This skill is often referenced with impulse control, will power, and self control.