Exploring Human Anatomy and Physiology: A Comprehensive Study

1. CHAPTER 1 THE HUMAN BODY: AN OVERVIEW

2. ANATOMY • THE STRUCTURE OF BODY PARTS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS TO ONE ANOTHER.

3. PHYSIOLOGY • CONCERNS THE FUNCTIONS OF THE BODY.

4. GROSS OR MACROSCOPIC ANATOMY • STUDY OF LARGE BODY STRUCTURES • REGIONAL ANATOMY – ALL STRUCTURES IN A A PARTICULAR REGION OF THE BODY (EX. LEG) • SYSTEMIC ANATOMY – STUDIED SYSTEM BY SYSTEM • SURFACE ANATOMY – STUDY OF INTERNAL STRUCTURES AS THEY RELATE TO THE OVERLYING SKIN SURFACE.

5. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY • STRUCTURES TOO SMALL TO BE SEEN WITH THE NAKED EYE • CYTOLOGY – CELLS OF THE BODY • HISTOLOGY – TISSUES OF THE BODY

6. DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY • STRUCTURAL CHANGES THROUGHOUT A LIFESPAN • EMBRYOLOGY – DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES BEFORE BIRTH

7. PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY • STRUCTURAL CHANGES CAUSED BY DISEASE

8. RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY • INTERNAL STRUCTURES UNDER X-RAY OR OTHER SCANS

9. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY • CAN BE GROUPED UNDER ANATOMY WHEN LOOKING AT THE CELLULAR LEVEL

10. TOOLS FOR STUDYING ANATOMY • ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY • OBSERVATION • MANIPULATION • PALPATION (FEELING ORGANS WITH HANDS) • AUSCULTATION (LISTENING WITH A STETHOSCOPE)

11. RENAL PHYSIOLOGY • KIDNEY FUNCTION AND URINE PRODUCTION

12. NEUROPHYSIOLOGY • WORKINGS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

13. CARDIOVASCULAR PHYSIOLOGY • OPERATION OF HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS

14. PHYSIOLOGY OFTEN FOCUSES ON MOLECULAR OR CELLULAR LEVELS • PHYSIOLOGY ALSO RESTS ON PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICS • EX. BLOOD PRESSURE • ELECTRIC CURRENTS • MUSCLES AND BONES

15. COMPLEMENTARITY OF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION • FUNCTION ALWAYS REFLECTS STRUCTURE • EX. BONES • EX. HEART (BLOOD) • EX. GAS EXCHANGE IN THE LUNGS

16. LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION (FIG. 1.1) • CHEMICAL LEVEL (ATOMS – MOLECULES – ORGANELLES) • CELLULAR LEVEL • TISSUE LEVEL (4 TYPES) • ORGAN LEVEL (COMPOSED OF AT LEAST TWO TISSUES) • ORGAN SYSTEM (FIG. 1.3) • ORGANISMAL LEVEL

17. MAINTAINING LIFE

18. NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS

19. MAINTAINING BOUNDARIES • EVERY LIVING ORGANISM MUST MAINTAIN BOUNDARIES SO THAT ITS INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT REMAINS DISTINCT FROM ITS EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT. • SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE MEMBRANES • THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM (SKIN)

20. MOVEMENT • INCLUDES ACTIVITIES PROMOTED BY THE MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEM • ALSO OCCURS WHEN SUBSTANCES SUCH AS BLOOD, FOODSTUFFS, AND URINE ARE PROPELLED THROUGH INTERNAL ORGANS. (WHAT SYSTEMS?) • THE MUSCLE CELL’S ABILITY TO MOVE BY SHORTENING IS CALLED CONTRACTIVITY.

21. RESPONSIVENESS (IRRITABILITY) • THE ABILITY TO SENSE CHANGES (STIMULI)IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND THEN RESPOND TO THEM. • EX. CUT YOUR HAND – YOU INVOLUNTARILY PULL YOUR HAND AWAY. • THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IS MOST INVOLVED WITH RESPONSIVENESS.

22. DIGESTION • BREAKING DOWN OF INGESTED FOODSTUFFS TO SIMPLE MOLECULES THAT CAN BE ABSORBED INTO THE BLOOD AND DISTRIBUTED TO ALL CELLS BY THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM. • IN A SINGLE-CELLED ORGANISM, THE CELL ITSSELF IS THE DIGESTIVE FACTORY.

23. METABOLISM • INCLUDES ALL REACITONS THAT OCCUR IN BODY CELLS • CATABOLISM – BREAKING DOWN SUBSTANCES INTO THEIR SIMPLER BUILDING BLOCKS. • ANABOLISM – SYNTHESIZING MORE COMPLEX CELLULAR STRUCTURES FROM SIMPLER SUBSTANCES. • CELLULAR RESPIRATION – USING NUTRIENTS AND OXYGEN TO PRODUCE ATP. • METABOLISM IS REGULATED LARGELY BY HORMONES SECRETED BY ENDOCRINE SYSTEM GLANDS.

24. EXCRETION • REMOVING EXCRETA (WASTES) FROM THE BODY • INVOLVES DIGESTIVE SYSTEM, URINARY SYSTEM, CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

25. REPRODUCTION • CAN OCCUR AT THE CELLULAR OR ORGANISMAL LEVEL

26. GROWTH • USUALLY ACCOMPLISHED BY INCREASING # OF CELLS • CONSTRUCTIVE ACTIVITIES MUST OCCUR FASTER THAN DESTRUCTIVE ONES

27. SURVIVAL NEEDS

28. NUTRIENTS • CARBOHYDRATES-MAJOR ENERGY FUEL FOR CELLS • PROTEINS-ESSENTIAL FOR BUILDING CELL STRUCTURES • FATS-CUSION, FORM INSULATING LAYERS, AND SERVE AS ENERGY RESERVES • ALL NUTRIENTS ARE USELESS WITHOUT OXYGEN

29. WATER • 60 TO 80% OF BODY WEIGHT • PROVIDES WATERY ENVIRONMENT FOR CHEMICAL REACTIONS TO OCCUR • MAKES FLUID BASE FOR SECRETIONS AND EXCRETIONS

30. NORMAL BODY TEMPERATURE • MUST BE MAINTAINED FOR PROPER METABOLISM

31. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE • AFFECTS RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

32. HOMEOSTASIS

33. HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS • VARIABLE – FACTOR OR EVENT BEING REGULATED • ALL HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS HAVE AT LEAST 3 INTERDEPENDENT COMPONENTS: 1. RECEPTOR 2. CONTROL CENTER 3. EFFECTOR

34. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANSIMS • MOST HCM’S ARE NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS • THE OUTPUT SHUTS OFF THE ORIGINAL STIMULUS OR REDUCES IT’S INTENSITY • EX. HOME HEATING SYSTEM • EX. GLUCOSE AND INSULIN

35. POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS • THE RESULT OR RESPONSE ENHANCES THE ORIGINAL STIMULUS SO THAT THE ACTIVITY (OUTPUT) IS ACCELERATED. (MANY TIMES RACES OUT OF CONTROL) • EX. LABOR • EX. BLOOD CLOTTING