Towards A Migration System between Turkey and Russia: Changing Migration Patterns and Profiles

1. Towards A Migration System between Turkey and Russia: Changing Migration Patterns and Profiles Ayşem Biriz KARAÇAY Migration Research Center at Koç University (MiReKoc) atokat@ku.edu.tr April 22, 2013 St. Petersburg

2. Towards A Migration System between Turkey and Russia: Changing Migration Patterns and Profiles • theoratical overview migration system theory • macro structure / analytical parts history of Turkish emigration since 1960s the nature, characteristics, and patterns of migration to & from Russia • micro & meso structures / empirical evidences migration histories of project-tied migrants the role of intermediaries • concluding remarks

3. There have been numerous studies conducted on the Turkish emigration but • no consistent research has been carried out on themigration flows including project-tied migration from Turkey to the former communist countries of the neighboring regions and vica-versa • no use of migration system theory in the research on Turkish emigration to different destination regions.

4. Application of the migration system theory is not arbitrary, but is rather merely functional!! migration system theory (Kritz, Lim and Zlotnik, 1992) analyses international migration as a dynamic process linking origin country, destinationcountry & migrants themselves • focuses on how to relate the macro, micro and meso-level variables to the larger context of international migration • takes feedback and adjustment effects into account migration system is a set of countries that • have close historical, cultural, or economic linkages and • linked by flows and counter-flows of people, goods, services, and information which tend to facilitate further exchange, including migrationbetween the places

5. A Migration System Source: Kritz & Zlotnik 1992: 3

6. Migration flows from TR have become a part of 4migration systems • firstly heavily involved in post-war European immigration guest workers mostly in Germany, France and Holland (early 1960s) family reunification and marriage migration (after 1973 Crises) clandestine migration and asylum seeking (mid 1980s / military coupe in TR) second generation /integration-assimilation/multi-culturalism, return migration circular movements/floating population (late 1980s and early 1990s) • secondly annexing to Australian immigration permanent migration • then linking to project-tied migration to the oil-rich countries of MENAproject-tied migrants mostly in Libya, Iraq, Saudi Arabia strict rules & regulations / no family reunification & no marriage migration • finally, connecting to migration flows of the formerly communist countries of Eastern Europe and Central and Northern Asia project-tied migrants, professionals and investorswith small & medium size capital floating population

7. Turkish migrant stock abroad in mid-1980s, mid-1990s and mid 2000s Source: Figures are cmpilied by Icduygu (2010) from various sources of Eurostat and OECD

8. Number of Workers Sent Abroad by the Turkish Employment Office (TEO), 2000–2011 Source: Figures are cmpilied by Icduygu (2010) from various sources of Eurostat and OECD

9. Migration System btwn TR & RF • Initiation period (1917-1990) • 1984 Natural Gas Treaty • Transition period (1991-2000) • dissolution of the Soviet Union (social&cultural traumas) • 1998 economic crises in RF • 1999 earthquakes & 2001 economic crises in TR • Consolidation period (2001-onward) • reactive migration policy management in RF • liberalisation in the migration policy in RF • economic recovery in the construction sector both in RF& TR

10. Initiation period (1917-1980): Early Years of theRepublics • Close cooperation and military support during the Turkish War of Independence • An act against Western Imperialism • 1925 Friendship and Neutrality Agreement & 1927 Trade Agreement with Turkey • A branch of Ruskombank in Ankara • Turkey inspired by the Soviet centrally-planned state economy • Statist economic measures were taken with the advise of the Russian experts • The First Five-Year Plan prepared in 1932-1933 and ratified in January 1934 • The first long-term Credit: Kayseri and Nazilli Textile Plants • Worsening relations between the Soviet Union & Turkey with the offer of co-sovernity at the Straits & renewal of the Montreaux Convention signed in 1936 • Turkey became a member of NATO in 1952 & moved from statist economic policies towards economic liberalisation

11. Initiation period (1917-1980): Cold War Politics Tension is high btwn the Super Powers & their allies BUT Creditsrejected by the USA but received from the Soviet Union: in 1957 / Çayırova Glass Factory Credits rejected by the USA but received from the Soviet Union: in 1967, 1972 & 1979 /Iskenderun Iron & Steel Factory; Aliağa Oil Rafinery; Atrvin Plate Factory; Orhaneli Thermal Power Plant There are political disputes/increasing tensions between Turkey and the Soviet Union during the Cold War, BUT the economic relations btwn them enhanced & improved the cooperation which would lead to the first migratory flows between Turkey & Soviet Union

12. Initiation period (1917-1980): Cold War Politics The economic relations led to the first initiatives in the 1970s entrepreneurs and retired bureaucrats who were aware of the Soviet closed economy, bureaucracy and specific needs that might be supplied by Turkey • Güntekin Köksal, one of the foremost industrialists, PET Consulting in Moscow in1974, (would be a holding in 1990s) • Ertan Balin with BASTAŞ Barite Company in Moscow, in1978 BASTAŞ, exporting barite (a mineral used in oil industry)

13. Initiation period (1980-1990): Towards the End of the Cold War -1984 Natural Gas Agreement changing dynamics in the Turkish foreign policy • the economic liberalization policies in 1980's • the credit facilities provided by the Turkish Eximbank established with the aim of strengthening the competitiveness of Turkish companies abroad • the opening of the Sarp border gate between Turkey and Russia increasing attention of Turkish contractors to foreign markets • completion of large scale infrastructural projects in oil-exporting countries and unfavourable conditions in the MENA countries and in the region overall and Soviet search for new gas-import conutriesthrough Barter Agreements (1981 Gas for Pipe Agreement with Federal Republic of Germany) led to 1984 Natural Gas Agreement between Turkey and the USSR

14. Initiation period (1980-1990) 1984 Natural Gas Agreement between Turkey and the USSR (Barter Agreement) • According to this agreement Some portion of the payment for Soviet natural gas was covered by Turkish construction services in USSR the expansion of trade has been almost on barter terms with one party exporting goods (natural gas), while the other balances the trade by contracting services (construction) (% 35) • With this agreement Turkish businessmen and project-tied migrants entered to the Soviet Union It is the core impetus leading to new directions/patterns in the migration system btwn Turkey and Soviet Union/Russia

15. The Agreement strated to be implemented in 1988 Projects completed by the Turkish Construction Companies, (1988-91)Source: TMB, 2010Number of workers sent to USSR by Turkish Employment Office (TEO) is 1989: 932 & 1990: 1243

16. Petrovsky Passage after the Renovation

17. Transition period (1991-2000) First half of the transition period • the collapse of the USSR led to nationalism, ethnic & religious-based conflicts, minoritydiscriminationand civilwars, created a totally new migration situation and produced • massrepatriation of Russian-speaking populations • flows ofrefugees, forced migrants, and displaced people from areas of armed conflict and • brain drain to the USA, Germany & Israel Second half of the transition period • the development ofgenuine labor market relations, the moderation of minority policies, and the official recognition of the freedom of exit and entrance resulted in • shuttle trade and short-term labor migration emerged as a means of survival in the post-Soviet economic crises, and led to substantially lower social tension and a higher standard of living, -irregular short-term migrants are mostly from the CIS countries & -labour migrants are mostly from China, N. Korea, and TR.

18. Transition period (1991-2000) First half of the transition period • Turkish construction companies, as the main source of the flows of professionals andproject-tied migrants from Turkey to the region, rapidly gained experience and sophistication by focusing initially on low-technology projects in difficult locations in the post-Soviet countries. • Two results: • involvement of the Turkish businessmen not only in the Russian construction market, but also in different sectors such as tourism, textile, and food in Russia. • investment of Turkish entrepreneurs with small or medium-sized capital & taking the risk of establishing gift shops, cafes, restaurants, bakeries or slaughterhouses in the newly emerging Russian market economy. Nejat İnan Textile Company in Moscow Cengiz Aşkın A Hairdresser in Moscow

19. Transition period (1991-2000) Second half of the transition period • spread of the construction companies(mostly graduates of METU) and project-tied migrants to different locations in Russia & in Post Soviet Countries • Projects of the Turkish Construction Companies in 1997

20. Number of workers sent to RF by TEO and number and value of the Turkish construction projects in RF, 1989-1999 Source: Turkish Employment Office (TEO) and Moscow Office of the Commercial Counsellor.

21. Transition period (1991-2000)Second half of the transition period • war in Chechnya, • 1998 Russian financial and economic crises, • growing difficulties in residence registration, • existing administrative obstacles, and • increasingly xenophobic attitudes in Russian societyand • the earthquakes of 1999 in TR • the 2001 financial crisis in TR negatively affected the businesses of Turkish companies in the region and ongoing migration flows from TR to RF slowed in the late 1990s

22. Consalidation period (2001-onwards) First half of the consolidation period migration-control policies (2001-2005) • attempts of the Putin administration were primarily oriented toward • the strengthening of law enforcement aspects of migration policies • concentrated mostly on refugees and forced migrants, and illegal migrants • with the aim of limiting the numbers coming in. Second half of the consolidation period open door policies (2005-onward) • in 2005 the Putin administration adopted new acts with the aim of • general liberalization of migration policy, • increase of permanent migration, • improvement in migration statistics, • the expansion of the legal space for temporary migration, and • limited legalization of irregular migrants

23. Consolidation period (2001-onwards) Migration flows from Turkey to RF Turkish migrants in Russia mostly residing in Russia’s two migrant-magnet cities Moscow & St. Petersburghave already established their own distinctive Featureswith different profiles! • project-tied migrants • professionals and • small and medium-sized investors • seasonal agricultureal workers (?) • Various investments: Efes Pilsen, Yapı Kredi Bank, Boyner, • Foundations and research centers & business councils: RUTID, RTIB, RUTAM, RDKD

24. Business Councils of Foreign Economic Board (DEİK) in Russia

25. Number of workers sent to RF by TEO and number and value of the Turkish construction projects in RF, 2000-2011 Russia: Population is 141 750 000 in 2010 close 8-9 million migrants in 2010 close to 100 000 migrants from Turkey Moscow: close to 12 million population close to 1.8 million regular migrants in 2010 Source: Turkish Employment Office (TEO) and Moscow Office of the Commercial Counsellor.

26. Consolidation period (2001-onwards) Migration flows from RF to Turkey a decline in the shuttle trade during the consolidation period, an increasing migration flow towards the Aegean and Mediterranean cities in Turkey (mostly women migrants are crossing the borders for the seasonal work, especially in the tourism sector) -Shuttle traders -Circular migrants who works in various sectors -Inter-marriage migration/retirement migration -Tourists

27. Project-tied migrants in MOSCOW: micro level analysis Who are the project-tied migrants in the construction sector in Moscow? were btwn 23-50 years old with an average of 33, mostly from urban backgrounds and fairly well-educated and skilled workers half of them were single and the married project-tied migrants did not think about the family reunification. “My contract will be finished in one year, so I have to move to another construction field, maybe in another city or in another country. In Russia, people have a very different culture and way of life. Religion is different, the language is very difficult. I don’t want to bring my family here. They will be very isolated.” (Ali)

28. Project-tied migrants in MOSCOW: micro level analysis Why to go to Russia? • to get receive the entirety of their salaries at the end of the month, • to pay for children’s education and pay debts, • negative working conditions in Turkey, • the fame of the company and the prestige provided by working with this company . “Education is more than important; I have to work to provide a better life for my children, and this is possible when they get a good education”(Hüseyin) “My father worked in this company, he was in Libya, Iraq, and, you know, this company gave us an identity. For me, this identity is more than a logo, it is not only a brand. So how can I explain; we are like a family.” (Kemal)

29. Project-tied migrants in MOSCOW: micro level analysis What about their earnings? salariesranges btwn USD 1,000-1,500 / salary advance ranges btwn USD 75-100 most Turkish construction companies in Russia transfer the project-tied workers’ salaries to the workers’ shared bank accounts in Turkey • most of the migrant workers interviewed share their bank accounts with either their father, wife or mother. • migrants, holding shared accounts with their close relatives, leave their wages in Turkey and have their relatives manage these savings “in the early 1990s, the payments were made to our own bank accounts in Russia. But some of the workers spent it in a very short period of time without taking their families into consideration. Some families broke up because of this salary mismanagement. So the company authorities took this situation into consideration and from then on they paid to our shared accounts in Turkey.” (Ömer)

30. Project-tied migrants in MOSCOW: micro level analysis How to go to RF? the first project that brought Turkish project-tied workers to Moscowwith the implementation of the 1984 Natural Gas Agreement was the restoration and renovation of Petrovsky Passage, a historic architectural landmark in Moscow. the first-comers had arrived in Kiev Train Station in Moscow after a three-day train trip, in October 1988. in the later stages of project-tied flows to RF, migrant workers used the 3-4 day bus services which mainly departed from Istanbul (Has Turizm) to different regions of RF. today, the project-tied migrants transferred with airplane -- mostly cheap charterflights – and then arrive at the construction field, after a bus or train trip in RF.

31. Project-tied migrants in MOSCOW: micro level analysis Living conditions • actual buildings being constructed or renovated which provide workers with accommodation, consisting of rooms with approximately 4-8 beds at the construction site. • some of the companies are able to rent guesthouses or small hotels for their workers. accommodations generally provide proper sanitary conditions, and workers have access to hot water or bathing facilities. Turkish companies provide decent living conditions for their workers.

32. Project-tied migrants in MOSCOW: micro level analysis Who are the other foreign workers in the construction field? • Initiation period: Turkish construction companies prefer to employ mostly Turkish workers in the field to avoid possible communication problems & cultural incompatibility. • Transition period: Increasing costs of the Turkish Migrant workerswere balanced with the overqualified Russian workers. Bribery and stealing, theft,communication/language were the mainproblems in the field. “a woman who is a space engineer worked with us in the field not as a secretary but as a driver of a the big construction maschine.” (Orhan) • Consolidation period:Because of the internationally competitive construction market in Russia, today many companies prefer foreign workers who will be employed without going through a complicated employment procedure of Russia and/or are able to speak one of the dialects of the Turkish language. As a result, at the construction sites of the Turkish companies today, one can easily meet a Tajik, Uzbek, or Kyrgyzworker.

33. Project-tied migrants in MOSCOW: micro level analysis Future plans in Moscow • most of the project-tied migrants do not plan to go back to Turkey permanently. • for many, migration for a work is a long term life strategy. • the main intention of these migrants is to continue to circulate with different projects to various countries. The answer to the question of other possible destinations apart from Russia came as different company names with different job opportunities. In other words, project-tied workers are not tending to go to a specific country itself but preferring to circulate with companies providing themselves economic prosperity and job security.

34. Project-tied migrants in MOSCOW: meso level analysis How to hire project-tied migrants? Construction Companies: mostly used their own human resources as their major source ofworker supply for their ongoing and forthcoming projects. are also cooperating with legal intermediary/subcontracting firms mostly initiated by their former workers. legal intermediary firms are the major protagonists in job placement of project-tied migrants from Turkey

35. Project-tied migrants in MOSCOW: meso level analysis but, the costly, unclear and long administrative and bureaucratic procedure to recruit project-tied migrants from abroad to Russia makes somecompanies/subcontracting agencies to recruit workers illegally they may *transfer the workers with tourist visa to the field, *failed to provide the promised salaries and conditions, *forced them to work for long hours, *left them with substandard onsite living and unsafe working conditions, *confiscated migrants’ passports and forced them to work without wages “One of my friends was deceived by an illegal subcontractor, and he came to Russia on a tourist visa; then the subcontractor took his passport. He said that at the construction site he slept on the basement floor of the house that they were building and ate only macaroni for two weeks.” (Reşat)

36. Concluding Remarks • since the early 1990s, new migration patterns have been experienced throughout the post-Soviet geographies. • the internalization process of Turkish constructors, the changing dynamics of the Turkish and Soviet foreign policy and economy has widened the direction of the migration flows btwn TR& RF introducing new migrant worker profiles in the post-Soviet geographies, • project-tied migrants, • businessmen, professionals, • small and medium-sized investors, • seasonal agricultural workers have joined to the migration flows • -Shuttle traders • -Circular migrants who works in various sectors • -Inter-marriage migration/retirement migration • -Tourists

37. Concluding Remarks YES! • much more work remains to be done, and • the analysis should be extended to other cases of different migrant categories/profiles through which some comparative studies could be conducted. YES WE CAN!!!!!

38. Thank you.........