Diaspora and Foreign Policy

1. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Diasporas are endemic to the international system, having a capacity for independent and assertive political action. • The diaspora becomes a key constituency of concern for homeland leaders, for the governments of their host states, and, through their international diplomaticactivities, for other states as well.

2. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Diasporas act as more than just domestic constituencies within their host states. • They also function as an important “domestic” constituency for homeland political leaders and, moreover, • as transstate players, acting on behalf of their entire people in interactions with third-party states and international organizations

3. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Diasporasmayactivelyinfluencetheforeignpolicies of theirhomelands • Whentheyachievetransnationaleconomicorpoliticalclout (orboth), diasporas can, and do, directlyaffectidentitiesandhomelandpolicies • They may also influence the foreign policy of their host states depending on the host state political institutions and diaspora’s organizational power.

4. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Robert Putnam: internationalnegotiationsare a “two-levelgame,” ratherthanmerely a government-to-governmentinteraction, RATHER stateleadersbalancetwocompetingspheres at once in an internationalnegotiation; theymustsatisfybothdomesticpoliticalconstituenciesandalsomeetthenegotiatingcounterpart’s minimum demands • In some cases, with the involvement of diaspora this can become a three-level game.

5. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Theseelementsareusuallyneglected in traditionalinternationalrelationsscholarship, whichbasesitsunderstanding of statebehavior on limitedassumptionsabout a state’sidentityandinterests. • As an increasingproportion of violencewithinandbetweenstates has centeredaroundissues of communalidentityratherthanpowerandwealth, internationalrelationsscholarshavestruggledwiththenature of nationalidentityandhow it shapesstates’ understanding of theirinterests.

6. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Constructivisttheoreticaldevelopmentsaremosthospitabletothistype of analysis, but theytendtofocus on identities as derivatives of system-widenorms, or of domesticpoliticalcultures. • Instead, there is a needtoadd a transnational form of identitythattakesintoaccountthecontinualand ever changingcharacter of the “people” inside andoutsidethestate. • The identitiesandinterests of statesarebothflexibleandmutuallyconstitutiveand severalpropositionsabouttheidentitiesandinterests can be made thatengagediasporas in homelandcommunalconflictsarenoteworthy.

7. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Factors Affecting the Diasporic Influence • When homeland state is weak/new: Diaspora communitiesidentifythemselves, andareidentifiedbyothers, as part of thehomelandnationalcommunity. • Inthecase of newandweakstates, thenationalidentitywasoften “held in trust” bythe diaspora duringthe initial years/decades. • Robert Wieberarguesthatwhenhomelandsarewellestablishedstates, kin communitiesabroadarelessinclinedtochanneltheirethnicidentityintodiasporicactivity.

8. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Thedegreetowhichoneinfluencestheotherdepends on theirrelativestrength, which is determinedby, amongotherfactors, monetaryflows, culturalproductions, communityleadership, andtransnationalpoliticalparties • Diasporasmayinfluencetheforeignpolicies of theirhostcountries. This is especiallytrue of diasporasintegratedintodemocraticsocieties, wheretheyoften organize as interestgroupsthatinfluencetheforeignpolicy of theirhostgovernment. • Hoststates, particularly Western democracies, takeintoaccounttheinterestsandpoliticalpower of diaspora communities in formulatingpoliciestowardhomelandconflicts

9. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Democraticpolitiesrespondtopreferences of its constituents. So it is not surprisingthatdiasporas’ voicesareheard. However, cohesionandaccessarecrucialtounderstandingtheconditionsunderwhichtheirinfluencewill be critical at thenationallevel of policymaking • Diasporasalwayshavethepotentialtoinfluencetheirhostcountry’sforeignpolicy. But thatpotentialwillremainunrealizedunlesstheimmigrantcommunity is sufficientlylarge, has accesstothecorridors of politicalpower, andspeakswith a singlevoice.

10. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • The Reasons for Diasporic Involvement in Homeland Affairs • Thediasporicconnectionwithevents at homemaybelargelysocialandpsychological, throughtheiridentificationwiththeirhomeland’saspirationsandstruggles. • Homelandconflicts can alsoaffectdiasporasmoredirectly: economically, sociallyintermsof their self-imageandhowtheirhostsocietyviewsthem, andeventhroughphysicalthreatsdirectedagainstthembythosegroupsengaged in theconflictagainsttheirhomelandkin.

11. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Theethnicidentity of a diaspora group is madeup of elementsthataresharedwiththeir kin in thehomeland (historical, social, andculturalideals) as well as otherelementsthatareuniquetothediaspora andderivefromitsseparateexperiences. • Thediaspora’sidentity is alsoaffectedbythedegreetowhichitsleaders (andmembers) areactivelyengaged in domesticaffairs in thehomeland.

12. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • The “wholeness” orinviolability of thehomeland’sterritory is also a key marker of thenation’swell-beingforthe diaspora. Thus, an interstateconflictorinternalseparatistmovementgenerallybecomes a majoringredient in diasporicidentity. • A threattothehomeland’ssurvivalfromconflictserves as an importantmobilizingforcefordiasporiccommunities, enablingthemtobuildinstitutions, raisefunds, andpromoteactivismamongcommunitymembers. • Since thethreattothehomeland is a powerfultoolto mobilize diaspora communitymemberstofund diaspora organizationsandengage in politicalactivity in thehoststate, peaceitselfcanthreatendiasporicidentity.

13. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Diaspora-Homeland • Whilekinshipidentity can be negotiatedbetweenhomelandand diaspora, thestructure of modern internationalrelationsgivestheprerogative of constituting, elaborating, andimplementingthenationalinteresttothestate not tothediaspora • BUTstatesmayconsidertheirdiasporic kin as part of theirnationalsecurityequationunderthepremise of mutualresponsibility. Israel, forexample, declaresitself, bylaw, responsibleforthewell-being of allJewsaroundtheworld. ItalsoregardstheJewish diaspora, andespeciallyJewish-Americans, as “one of Israel’sstrategicassets.”

14. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Yet in practice, strugglesofteneruptbetweenhomelandand diaspora groupsoverthedefinition of thenation, andthereforeovertheproperbalancebetweentheinterests of thehomelandandthose of “thepeople.” • Thediaspora attemptstopromoteitsownview of theethniccommunity’sidentityandinterests, a viewwhich is not alwayscongruentwiththeview of thehomelandauthorities.

15. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • The nationalinterestsarticulatedbythehomelandgovernmentwithrespecttotheresolution of a violentconflictwith a neighboringstateor an internalethnicminority can have a significantimpact on theidentity of thetransnationalcommunity. • Disputeseruptbetweendiasporicelementsandhomelandauthorities not onlyoverthedefinition of nationhood, but alsoovertheconceptualization of thehomeland’sterritorialboundaries, often a criticalcomponentboth in conflictperpetuationandconflictresolution.

16. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • When the conflict is hot and the homeland is under severe threat, diaspora concerns about the homeland’s existential survival are paramount, and divergent opinions may be subsumed under a broader show of support. But when the possibility of peace arises, homeland-diaspora debates and power struggles reemerge.

17. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Inmanycases, thepolicies of homelandauthoritieswithrespecttotheirongoingviolentconflictsmayalsoimpinge on diaspora communities’ politicalorsocialstatus in theirhostsociety. • Whenkin statesviolatenormsthatarevaluedbythehoststate (such as, forthe United States, democracyorhumanrights), diasporasareoftenimplicatedorheldaccountablemorallyandpolitically. • The U.S. governmentandperhapseventhe U.S. publicmayexpect diaspora leaderstopersuadeorpressuretheirhomelandgovernmenttoalteritspolicies in a morecongenialdirection.

18. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Diaspora-Host State:Diaspora’s accesstopoliticalpower, determinedlargelybythepoliticalinstitutions of eachhostsociety. • Countriesthatextendcitizenshipandgrantparticipatoryrightstoimmigrantgroupswillreflectimmigrantinfluenceovertheirforeignpolicyto a greaterextent. • Itis commonplacetoattributecertainaspects of U.S. foreignpolicytothepressuresbroughtbyimmigrantgroups. Thequestion is whetherthisphenomenon is universal. • In host countriesthatfacilitatetheacquisition of citizenshipandgrantotherparticipatoryrights, diasporas will have participate the political processes more and therefore willhavegreaterinfluenceovertheirhostcountry’sforeignpolicy.

19. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Diasporapolitics has beenbolsteredbythecollapse of theSovietUnion, whichresulted in a decline in theinfluence of traditionalpoliticalelites, whodominated U.S. foreignaffairsthroughouttheColdWar. • Accordingly, America'sloss of itsColdWarenemies has underminedpoliticalleaders' abilitytorallythenationaround a unifyingcause.

20. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • The American melting-pot concept, which stresses assimilation into a Protestant Anglo-Saxon culture, has given way to a pluralist creed that recognizes ethnicity as integral to American life. • Thus, immigrants are no longer required to give up their ethnic identity, language, or attachment to country of origin to become Americans. Hyphenation is well respected. • Since they are less and less subjected to charges of disloyalty, ethnic officials and their constituencies are more inclined to reconstitute and strengthen their ties with their ancestral countries. • Efforts on behalf of ancestral countries are widely recognized as legitimate political practices, licensed and encouraged by the nature of the American party system and the power of each congressional representative.

21. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Howdoes Diasporicinfluencebears on America'snationalinterestabroad, on ethnicrelations inside the United States, and on Americancivicculture in general? • Whatis therelationshipbetween an ethnicgroupgaining an effectivevoice in U.S. foreignpolicyanditsadoption of Americanpoliticalideals? • Whatfunction do ethniclobbiesserve in America's global role as thechampion of democraticideals? • Anddoesethniccommitmenttoancestralcountriesimpede U.S. domesticcohesionandencouragesubnationalloyalties?

22. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • The growinginfluence of diaspora politics on foreignpolicy has ledmanytoquestionwhether: • America'snationalinterest is underminedbysuchpartisanforcesandwhetherthecommitment of ethnicAmericanstotheirancestralcountriesimpedes U.S. domesticcohesionbyencouragingsubnationalloyalties. • OldAmericananxietythatthedevotiontoancestralhomelandsunderminesnationalcohesivenessbyexacerbatingethnicstrains.

23. Diaspora and Foreign Policy • Theypointtomanyinstances of ethnicrivalries inside the United Statesthatarepromptedorfueledby diaspora relationswithancestrallands, such as thefeudsbetweenAmericanTurksandGreeks, betweenblacksandJewsoversuchissues as Israel'srelationswith South AfricaduringapartheidandblacksupportforthePalestinians, andbetweenAmericanSerbsandCroats. • SuchconcernsarecompoundedbytheuncertaintyregardingAmerica'sfutureinternational role. As U.S. strategicinterestsbecomelessclearthantheyoncewere, and as U.S. decisionmakersappearunabletoarticulateorexecute a coherent global strategy, foreignpolicybecomesmoresusceptibletopressuresbydiasporiclobbies.