Evolution of Warfare

1. Evolution of Warfare Alexander and the Macedonian System Maj Joel B. Turk

2. You should have read…. • Jones, The Art of War in the Western World, pp. 21 - 54, 57 - 62 • Preston and Wise, Men in Arms, pp. 27 - 31

3. Learning Objectives • Know and briefly discuss the continuing strategic and tactical innovations of Philip of Macedon and Alexander. • Know and discuss the organizational and tactical improvements of the Macedonian military system 350 - 320 B.C. • Know and describe Alexander’s 4 Major Battles against Persia.

4. Background • After the Graeco-Persian wars • Greeks began to fight among themselves • Sparta jealous of Athen’s growing power and prosperity • Delian League • Greek city states alliance to each other and Athens against the Persians • Athens lead but each city-state had one vote • Militades son Cimon squashed a revolt from the league by the island of Thasos and Cimon became very unpopular. • Pericles challenged his authority and a democracy was formed with Pericles at the head

5. Background • Pericles fortified and built up Athens • Peloponnesian Wars • Pericles • Defense on land and Offense at Sea • Fortifications and destroy trade • Died of Plague and Cleon took over • Cleon went on the offensive and was killed in the battle of Amphipolis • Peace of Nicias signed • Siege of Syracuse 415 B.C. • The power of Athens in reduced and Sparta replaced the democracies with oligarchies • Exiles and soldiers sought refuge in Persia

6. Background • Artaxerxes King of Persia and his brother Cyrus • Cyrus hires Greek mercenaries to fight against his brother • Battle of Cunaxa Cyrus is killed and the Greeks march back to Greece • “Retreat of the Ten Thousand” • Epilogue to the invasion of Xerxes and a prologue to the conquest of Alexander • Corinthian War – 8 years • Battle of Leuctra • Epaminondas, Theban commander fighting against Sparta • Knew the Spartans tactics and that they would not change

7. Background • Battle of Leuctra 371 B.C. • Spartans – Phalanx and shock tactics with spears • Epaminondas drew up in oblique to the Spartans. • Left in the front with a left wing of troops 50 ranks deep • Meet shock with supershock and have enough reserve to flank the enemy’s right wing • Right wing was covered by Cavalry • Deep column with a refused flank • Main effort and supporting attack • Epaminondas led the left attack and was victorious

8. Battle of Leuctra

9. Battle of Leuctra

10. Battle of Leuctra

11. Battle of Leuctra

12. Battle of Leuctra

13. Battle of Leuctra

14. Background • Thebes in power 369-362 B.C. • Power depended on one man – Epaminondas • He was killed in battle with the Spartans in 362 B.C. • Athens, Sparta and Thebes all failed in making Greece a powerful Nation and now Greece was ready to fall to a conqueror from the outside.

15. Map of Area

17. Macedonia – Northern Greek Kingdom • King Phillip of Macedon • “Fraud before force, but force at the last” • “The first European power in the modern sense of the word – an armed nation with a common national ideal” • Four groups of wars • To the W. N and E of Macedonia to establish Base of Ops • To the S. to control Thessaly • Those ot establish dominion over Thrace • Those fought to control Greece south of Thermopylae • Grand project was to wage war against Persia • The Battle of Chearonae 338 B.C.made him Lord of Hellenes de facto

18. Infantry • Improved the Phalanx by providing longer spear (Sarissa) about 21 ft long and increasing the depth from 8 to 16 ranks • Reduced the need for armor especially in the rear ranks (less cost) • The organization of the Phalanx was remarkably like that of a modern army • Tetrarchia (Platoon) - 64 Men • Taxiarchia (Company) - 128 Men • Syntagma (Battalion) - 256 Men • Chiliarchia (Regiment) - 1024 Men

19. Light Infantry • Hypaspists • Deployed to the front of the heavy infantry • Used missile attacks • Kept away from the opponents heavy infantry • Got out of the way as the phalanx’ collided

20. Infantry • In battle formation, the Sarissa of the first five ranks protruded into an impenetrable hedge, while the remaining ranks grounded or carried their Sarissa at a 45 degree angle to deflect missiles from overhead • Emphasis changed from the individual effort of the front rank to the entire unit

21. Infantry • On level ground this mobile force was invincible when it bore down with locked shields and bristling points. But formation had weaknesses. Its flanks and rear were open to attack, but it was better able to maneuver over rough terrain than previous phalanx’ • Professional Army that was drilled until they could function as a cohesive

22. Infantry • As a remedy for both defects, he built up a supporting light infantry • protected the wings of the phalanx, lending mobility as well as defense • consisted of mainly peltasts (lightly armored pikemen) but also included archers, slingers, and javelin men

23. Infantry • The light infantry served as a link between the slower moving phalanx and the faster moving cavalry • This “hinge” was essential to an advance in oblique order, for without it, contact between the cavalry and phalanx would almost certainly be lost

24. Cavalry • The cavalry had been the weakness of Greek arms. Philip made it the strength of his Army. He organized his nobles into a bodyguard called the companions which became the hammer of Macedonian battle tactics. • Heavy Calvary – Armor, shields, Calvary Spear (9’ with iron tips) • Still no Stirrup • Shock Action • Discipline, organized units • Heavy Calvary dominated light Infantry

25. Cavalry • In support he formed troops of light horsemen trained for scouting, skirmishing, and screening • Still had “traditional” Light Calvary which relied on missile action

26. Artillery • Philip also developed the first artillery arm of the ancient world. The use of “Engines of War” had been confined to siegecraft until the Macedonian King saw larger possibilities • The “War Engines” fell into two categories • Ballista • Catapult, or Howitzer

27. Ballista • Ancient fieldpiece, operated on the principle of tension. Simply a magnified crossbow stretched by a windlass. The projectile was usually a spear.

28. Catapult • Howitzer, Operated by means of torsion, its long upright arm terminated in a “spoon” or “cup”. The opposite end was entwined in heavy cords secured to posts. These cords were twisted by winches until the arm was at the desired angle. The catapult was used to hurl a missile high in the air for purposes of clearing a wall or hill.

29. Staff System • The details of the Macedonian staff system are not well-known but must have been quite thorough and extensive • Command was exercised by voice, by trumpet, and by spear movement • Long range communications were accomplished by smoke signals or fire beacons

30. Army Composition • Philip had formed the first national standing army, its strength made up of: • Citizens owing military service • Volunteers from the nobility • Auxiliary troops from tributary states • Mercenaries employed for some special skill

31. Persia – Darius III • Calvary and Light Infantry combination they added heavy infantry (Greek Mercenaries) • Light Infantry in front • Foundation was Calvary to decide the battle • NO heavy calvary • Bows and javelins (mailed shirts and swords)

32. Alexander Attacks Persia • Aristotle was his tutor • Phillip dies in 336 B.C and his son takes over • Devine Conquest of Persia • Conquered Athens and was very lenient • 4 Major Battles • Granicus River 334 B.C. • Issus 333 B.C. • Arbela 331 B.C. • Hydaspes 326 B.C.

33. Persia

34. Granicus River • Companions charged across river against the Persian Calvary • Darts against Spears • Infantry battle on Horses • Shock action prevailed • Heavy Infantry attacked the Persian Phalanx and was reinforced by the Companions (Flanking Attack)

35. Granicus River

36. Battle of Issus - Background • Alexander decided not to physically destroy the Persian Fleet but to occupy all the coastal cities. Took Two years • Darius had assembled an army to the East of the Amanus Mountains • Upon learning that Alexander was advancing Southward along the coast, Darius crossed the Amanus Range, came down to Issus and cut Alexander’s line of communication

37. Battle of Issus - Background • As soon as Alexander learned of this, he doubled back to battle the Persians • Alexander’s army of 30,000 now faced Darius with 100,000 on a narrow coastal plain

39. Battle of Issus - Alexander’s Plan • Because of the tremendous disparity in numbers, Alexander planned to attack the Persian left with his companion cavalry and Hypaspists (light infantry) • The remainder of his forces would be echeloned to his left rear • The Thessalian Cavalry would guard his left flank against the Persian Cavalry

41. Battle of Issus • In a preliminary action he drove back Persian covering force in the foothills • The leading echelons of the Phalanx were briefly in trouble when the Persian center counterattacked while they were crossing the stream • Alexander’s cavalry assault smashed the Persian left, then with the Hypastists, he wheeled Westward into the exposed Persian center

42. Battle of Issus • The Macedonian center renewed their efforts • The Persian Cavalry on Darius’ right had crossed the Pinarus river, only to be repulsed by the Thessalians and the left of the Phalanx

43. Battle of Issus • As his center crumbled, Darius fled, immediately followed by his panic-stricken survivors • Alexander pursued briefly, they returned to his original plan of securing the seacoast • Losses • Persian - in excess of 50,000 • Macedonian - less than 1,000

45. Battle of Arbela (Guagamela) • After seizing Tyre, Alexander moved South and West seizing Egypt and completing his control of the Eastern Mediterranean Seaboard • Learning of Darius’ assembling army in Mesopotamia, Alexander marched to meet him near Nineveh, about 70 miles west of Arbela • Darius’ Forces - about 200,000 • Alexander’s Forces - about 47,000

46. Battle of Arbela - Darius’ Plan • His best troops, the Greek Mercenaries, had been almost destroyed at Issus. He was now relying mainly on his cavalry, chariots and elephants • He drew his forces up in two long deep lines with cavalry on each flank

47. Battle of Arbela - Darius’ Plan • Numerous Scythe chariots lined the front of the entire army, with 15 elephants in front of the center • Darius had the plain to his front leveled, in order that his chariots could maneuver (Gaugamela)

48. Battle of Arbela -Alexander’s Plan • Use the foundation his father established • All forces are part of one instrument • Infantry clinches and holds, cavalry maneuvers and strikes a decisive blow.

49. Battle of Arbela -Alexander’s Plan • Due to reconnaissance, Darius’ groundwork was noted; Alexander deduced the reason for it and planned to reduce the Persian advantage • One of his generals recommended a night attack. Alexander, apparently aware of the difficulties concerned, refused • Reserve

50. Battle of Arbela • Darius attempted to shift his forces to the left, at the same time launching some of his cavalry. This created gaps in the Persian line • Persian wings swept in to envelop the Macedonian flanks but were met and repulsed by Alexander’s flank reserves