Evolution of Warfare

Evolution of Warfare “Everything You Always Wanted to Know About the” Spanish Square and the Great Armada, But Were Afraid to Ask.” Major Joel B. Turk MOI

Reading Assignment • Jones, pp. 195 - 213 • Preston and Wise, pp. 98 - 109, 119 - 131

Learning Objectives • Know and trace Spain’s tactical evolution on land with her infantry, emphasizing Cordoba and the Battle of Cerignola • Know and identify the significant developments in weaponry during the mid-16th century • Know and describe the Battle of Lepanto • Know and discuss the revolt in the Netherlands and the defeat of the Spanish Armada

The Forming of Spain • 1037 Ferdinand I establish the Kingdom of Castile and began the reestablishment of Spain “Reconquista” • Christians against the Moors • Portugal became a nation in 1139 • After the second crusade, Henry Duke of Normandy became the first King of Portugal 1147 • Alphonso VIII won a decisive battle at Las Nevas de Tolosa and the Christian cause was secure in Spain 1212 • By 1265 the Reconquista was complete except for the Moorish Kingdom of Grenada and a chain of port cities

The Forming of Spain • Tactics to this point • Skirmishes and sporadic forays • Lacked organization, discipline, and supply organization • Raids were constant with battles few and far between • Both belligerents were mounted • Farmers sought safety in towns and castles • Rebirth of the city state governed by a primitive democracy • From 1300-1400 Spain was split between Castile and Aragon • Kingdoms were united under a dual monarchy by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella except for Navarre and Granada

The Forming of Spain • Aragon and Castile were together by marriage but politically apart. Needed something to bring them together • Church played a major role but it was not enough • Leader was needed - Isabella • A unifying instrument – Spanish Inquisition by Pope Sextus IV in 1478 • A cause – Dread of another great Moslem invasion (Ottoman Empire)

Continental Warfare • Charles III invaded Italy 1494 and Charles V became Holy Roman Emperor 1519 • Struggles involved all of Europe • Meshing of old and new weapons and tactics • New thinking in war • Machiavelli

Machiavelli (1467-1527) • Effects of emerging Nation States • Nationalism • Separated politics from morality • Expediency and power • War cannot be fettered by ethical or other limitations • Conscripted national army vice mercenaries • To leisurely attitude and not motivated

Spain’s Tactical Evolution • Granada • Cordoba • Column • Tercio

Conquest of GranadaMay 1485 - January 1492 • Background • Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castille married • Their Goal • December 1481 • Response

Problems - Granada Conquest was Formidable • Very mountainous • Few roads - supply problems, movement of forces, etc. • Many castles on hill tops that just could not be taken • Needed cannons, but cannons were too heavy to get them up there and they needed good roads to travel on. • Drove cavalry to be the major arm, but cavalry at the time did very little to speed up war.

Solutions by Isabella • Artillery, Engineers and infantry • Feudal Levies for recruitment • Undisciplined, independence • Hermandad (Constabulary) turned it into the National Army. • Hired Swiss Mercenaries (Infantry) • Many volunteers flocked from Germany, England and France to join her crusade

Problems and Solutions • Siege Warfare - reduction of the castles and fortified towns • Use of logistics trains for artillery • Brought in gunfounders from Europe to make cannon balls, forges and make gun powder • Don Francisco Rameriz was in charge of the artillery • Bombards 12 feet long and 14 inches in caliber • Iron bars 2 inches in breadth and held together by bolts and rings. • Threw marble cannon balls and some type of flame • Could not be elevated or traversed • Mounted on wooden carriages without wheels • Dragged by oxen so they needed special roads • Needed pioneers to build the roads

Problems and Solutions • The supply of the besieging forces • Supply Train • Mainly pack mules (80,000) • Foraging and devastation of the area around the siege • Body of devastators. • 30,000 foragers • Corps of field messengers and a medical service • Earliest example of a field hospital

Forming the Army • 80,000 troops at Cordova • 12,000 cavalry • 40,000 Infantry • The rest foragers, pioneers, artillery and engineers • Just as many pack animals for the supply train

Spanish Strategy • Attrition based on: • Establishing naval bases on the southern coast of Granada • Blockading Granada’s coast and cutting it off from contact with Morocco • Devastation of Granada • Methodical series of sieges was to be carried out. • Ferdinand led the army and was ruthless to those who resisted • 1485 started out

The Strategy • Successful: Well planned and executed • Great use of ground forces and the fleet to accomplish the mission, especially to siege port cities • Malaga was besieged in 1487 • Ferdinand called for Isabella to inspire the army • Tried to take the city by politics • Bombarded the city until his supply of marble cannon balls ran short then stormed the city • Wooden towers on rollers with swing bridges • Aug 8 1487 Malaga fell and Ferdinand was ruthless to the inhabitants although pillaging was prohibited

The Strategy • 1489 Ferdinand took Baza • Granada was all that was left • Walled City with towers at the foot of the Sierra Nevadas and intersections of the rivers Genil and Darro • Ferdinand began to devastate the vega around the city in Spring of 1490 • April of 1491 he appeared with 80,000 men at the city • So determined that he build a roman camp type city (Santa Fe) 6 miles away from Granada • Granada surrendered by Treaty in Jan 1492

The Strategy • Granada Treaty • Artillery and fortifications handed over to the Spanish • Moors retained • Property • Dress • Religion • Customs • Laws • Moors would be ruled by their own magistrates under a Spanish Governor • Those who wished to migrate to Africa were given free passage • After 700 years the “Reconquesta” was complete

The Strategy • Spanish Soldier became the most noted in the world and the Spanish was one of the finest.

Gonzalo de Cordoba • Combined infantry arms (pikes, swords, firearms) • Defeated in Italy against the French and changed his tactics to Swiss armament • Used Economy of Force • Hold extensive frontages • Arquebusiers behind entrenchments • Meet, outmaneuver and defeat larger forces • Arquebusier Protection by the pikemen • Provided protection while reloading in the open • Exploited small arms firepower by offensive shock action • Combination of pikeman and arquebusier

Battle of Cerignola 1503 • Infantry • Arquebusiers in front with pikeman behind • Entrenched on slopes • Enticed the French to attack by harassing them with light cavalry • French • One headlong frontal attack. Thought they could break the line easily. • Arquebusiers opened fire and devastated them • Repeated until he felt it was the time to attack • First decisive use of small arms in the field.

Cordoba Develops the Tercio • 1505 - Colunela (Column) 4-5 companies • 1534 - The Tercio Developed • Three Colunela about 3000 men • Pikemen and arquebusiers • “Spanish Square” • Pikes Massed in 3 Lines (50-60 frontage) • 20 files deep • Arquebusier at Corners • Countermarch • Provided the rolling barrage • Allowed for the increasing number of shot to pike

Significant Naval Actions of this Period • Lepanto • Last significant battle in the age of galley warfare • Fleets were about equal • Formed in traditional battle formation • Long line of three divisions withg reserve in rear • Fighting raged confusedly for several hours • Christian sailors had better skills and superior armament got the better of the less skilled Turks • Turkish right flank folds and is driven to shore • Turkish center start to fold and then the left, which was doing well disengaged and escaped

Lepanto Losses • Turks - 230 ships grounded, sunk or captured. 20,000 sailors and soldiers killed or drowned • Christians - 173 galleys lost, 7600 killed, 8,000 wounded • Christian victory • Hand to Hand • Gunpowder • Began the decline of the Turkish power

16th Century Weapons • Spanish introduced the musket with a range of 300 yards • Heavier • Complex operation • 2-3 shots per minute • Accepted because it was • More accurate • Great range • Knock down power • Arquebus was still used by skirmishers

16th Century Weapons • To date firearms required two hands • Match plus weapon • Cavalry at a disadvantage • Wheellock 1515 allowed the cavalry to use one hand • Cavalry carried three weapons • Two in holsters and one in the right boot • Fire all three, drop the last and draw sword or retire to reload (needed both hands)

16th Century Weapons • Wheellock for muskets and arquebuses was having mechanical problems • Spring weakened after time • Rough handling ruined the wheel • Matchlock remained the prevailing weapon for another century

16th Century Weapons • Naval Weapons • Ship of the line under Henry VIII • Increased length to beam to improve maneuverability and handling • Portholes allowed heavy guns to be maintained below the center of gravity of the ship • Ships built for combat • Harness gun recoil to permit quick reloading • Broadside technique • Permanent Fighting Instructions • Formalized tactics

16th Century Weapons • Naval Weapons • Ship smashing Guns • Breach loaded • Muzzle loaded • Cannon – heavy iron (50 lbs) at medium range • Culverin – light iron (17 lbs) at long range • Demi-cannon –32 lb shot • Demi-culverin 9lb shot • Saker – 5 lb shot • Minion – 4 lb shot

Defeat of the Spanish Armada • Charles V in 1555 Spain inherited the Netherlands • The Netherlands revolt (1568 - 1609) • Philip II (Son of Charles V) dedicated himself to suppress local liberties and centralize the power of the crown • He appointed his half sister as Regent • She drove the country into reformation • Catholic and Protestant were both threatened • Locals despised the crown • Clergymen were unhappy • Prince William of Orange began opposition • 1566 Duke of Alva sent to put down opposition by stern measures

Defeat of the Spanish Armada • 1585Antwerp was recaptured by Duke of Parma • Parma’s advancement forced England to intervene on the side of the rebels

The Spanish Armada • Queen Elizabeth – policy of privateering raids for undeclared war with Phillip II • New World commerce at the mercy of the English • Netherlands, Spanish money for their army was being taken by the English and Dutch on the open seas • Philip II decided to destroy Protestant sea power

The Spanish Plan • The Armada was to rendezvous with Parma’s army in the vicinity of Dunkirk • The Armada itself carried a subsidiary landing force • Naval force was designed to be large enough to defeat the British fleet but its primary mission was to deliver the landing forces • The English Plan • Prevent the junction

The English Plan • Prevent the junction of the Armada and Parma’s army

The Match-up • English had three times as many long range pieces • Tactics – Long range fighting • Sink the enemy • Skillful sailors • Seaman fought the ship • Spanish had three times as many heavy shotted medium ranged pieces • Tactics – short range fighting • Close with and board the enemy ship • Fair weather sailors • Ships were fortresses

The Match-up • Spanish • 130 ships • 2431 guns • 8050 seaman • 18973 soldiers • Total men 30493 • 10 Sqaudrons • 54 ships

The Battle • English formed in one long line • Fired while passing the Spanish Vanguard and attack the rearguard

The Battle • English ships, guns, and gunnery proved decisively superior • The Armada’s only chance was to close and attempt to broad • English prevented this by broadsides at long range • Junction was prevented and squall prevented the destruction of the Spanish fleet

The Aftermath of the Battle • The revolt lasted for another 21 years • Under Maurice of Nassau

Evolution of Warfare