Evolution of Warfare

1. Evolution of Warfare The American Revolution Major Joel B. Turk MOI

2. Reading Assignment: • Preston and Wise, pp. 164 - 178 • Weigley, pp. 3 - 39

3. Learning Objectives • Comprehend and contrast/compare the expressions “strategy of attrition” and “partisan warfare,” and apply them to the American Revolution • Know and discuss British and American strategy and objectives, and note how they changed during the course of the American Revolution • Comprehend and contrast the Continental Army with the professional armies of the 18th century and show how this difference dictated Washington’s strategy • Comprehend and explain how French intervention tipped the balance in favor of America in the War for Independence

5. Causes • Fuller analysis - two causes • Taxation • Quartering of troops to defend against Indian forays after expulsion of French • British felt colonists should pay • Acts of Trade & Navigation ignored(smuggling) • Stamp Act, Revenue Act, Quartering Act

6. Causes • Real causes • Colonists had intellectual differences with British government (king vs. parliament) • Colonists had spirit of self-independence brought about by frontier life • Colonists believed in democratic form of government vice oligarchy

7. Other factors • Colonist goals distinct from mother country • British victory in 7-years war freed colonists of need for protection from French • 1763 - British move to tighten imperial control (station 10,000 soldiers along American frontier @ colonist expense)

8. Definition of Terms • Attrition - gradual weakening • Partisan - “irregular” troops • Guerilla warfare - “irregular” troops fighting small-scale, limited actions against larger orthodox military forces

9. Application of Terms • Strategy of Attrition - adopted by Washington due to economy • long lines of communication • English enemies in Europe (need to protect homeland) • popular support in England for colonies (prospect of long war might cause England to abandon cause) • Down side - division in colonies

10. Application of Terms • Partisan Warfare • local militias supported nucleus of continental soldiers • tactics well suited to means and background (Cowpens is classic example)

11. American Strategy and Objectives • Population - 1/3 rebel, 1/3 loyalist, 1/3 indifferent, & loyalists provided more support to England than rebels provided to continental army • Two wars - foreign war against major European power, & civil war • Strategic defensive for most of war

12. Lexington & Bunker Hill • Lexington gave impetus to siege of Boston & battle of Bunker Hill • Bunker Hill affected military policy: • convinced that regular military was unnecessary • Gen Howe henceforth failed to press victories • demonstrated colonist determination

13. Lexington & Bunker Hill • Simple defensive plan - oppose British at every point & hold line of the Hudson • 1775 - offensive to Canada objectives: • prevent advance of British through Hudson River Valley • incite French Canadian rebellion • both objectives failed

14. General Washington • After Bunker Hill he was forced to change to more Fabian Tactics by avoiding battle whenever he could. • First objective was the existence of his army.

15. Saratoga • Turning point in revolution • British now held only N.Y. City, Part of R.I., & Philadelphia • France recognized U.S. & signed treaty of alliance (1778) • France & colonies now more aggressive

16. Southern Campaign • Gen Greene - war of maneuver against Cornwallis • marched and counter-marched against main armies • used partisan bands under Lee, Pickens, Sumter, & Marion to harass flanks, cut off supplies, attack posts & put down loyalist aid

17. Southern Campaign • Intentionally violated principle of mass: • Divided forces could live off land • More rallying points for local militia • Tempted Cornwallis to split his force • Sacrificed mass for maneuver • Combination of regular and Guerilla warfare speedily reduced British occupation

18. British Strategy and Objectives • British Ministry Plan: • Occupy territory to break up union of patriots • Blockade coast to prevent resupply from sea • Destroy organized armies • Suppress Guerilla warfare by degrees

19. British Strategy and Objectives • Plan actually carried out: • Make N.Y. City headquarters (occupy) • Secure from NYC to Hudson Valley to Canada • Cut off New England - hotbed of sedition and source of supplies, ideas, encouragement & reinforcements • Actually only held one port (Newport) in New England

20. British Strategy and Objectives • South of NY the line was Chesapeake Bay • Strong positions in Maryland and Virginia. • Attempt to isolate the middle from the south and prevent communication. • Controlling the south: Occupy Charleston and 2 or 3 points along the Santee River in SC.

21. British Strategy and Objectives • Advantage: Royal Navy - freedom of maneuver along coastal strip • Disadvantage: no critical point to maneuver against along coast, unable to physically control all the territory

22. British Strategy and Objectives • Economic warfare • Blockade • Counterfeiting • ruining value of continental money • making own purchases with Gold

23. British Strategy and Objectives • Summary of overall plan • Separate the New England colonies (Principle Players) by seizing the line of the Hudson north to Lake Champlain. • Isolate food producing central with the line of the Chesapeake Bay and the lower Susquehanna River • Control Southern Colonies by holding Charleston, Georgetown and the Santee River • Naval blockade of the coast.

24. Review plan • Size of theater so large- British decided to secure Northern area first • Politically most important • Use Canada as base of ops • Victory would subdue other colonies

25. Review Plan (As of Lexington) • Capture Hudson River line using 3 columns (bad plan) • long supply lines over bad roads through hostile country • Americans could use advantage of interior lines • Should have used one strong force up Hudson from NYC

26. Review Plan (After Saratoga) • French in war - need to protect supply lines and other possessions • Spain & Holland entered war - need to keep forces at home • Fewer forces in theater - occupy positions vice pursuing enemy

27. Review Plan (Southern Campaign) • Late 1778 - focus on South • greater Tory strength • West Indies - guarding against French • Agricultural/Economic pressure • British forces too scattered • Cornwallis divided forces (Greenes’ strategy), won victories, but eventually consolidated @ Yorktown

28. British Force • Classic 18th century European Army • Linear tactics • Well-trained soldiers • Loyalty & dedication suspect in England • Sympathy for colonists • Hessians (mercenaries) employed

29. American Force • Most forces @ home for local defense - few forces for continental army • Prior to von Steuben - little discipline • Steuben served under Frederick • Made I.G. of Washington’s Army • Streamlined musket loading & uniformity • Standardized training - speed and tactics • Discipline instilled

30. American Force • Used rifle more than British • Most useful in Guerilla actions • No decisive role in revolution • Of great value in wooded areas • slow rate of fire • lack of bayonet • inferior to musket for open-field fighting

31. American Force • Cowpens (Jan, 1781) • Numerically equal forces, but Americans were 3/4 militia • Continental infantry on hill, leaving flanks open • Militia riflemen in front • 1st line fires two volleys, falls back • combined line fires until British presses • Then fall back to rear & become reserve

32. American Force • Cowpens (Jan, 1781) • Cavalry detachment behind position • Every man informed of plan and their role • The Battle • Tarleton ordered immediate attack • initial attack checked by militia • believed militia movement to rear was route • Cavalry struck on right flank, reformed militia on left (double envelopment)

33. Impact of French • French anxious to regain international position • Helped in three other significant ways: • Loans • Use of French ports for American privateers • Protected American vessels near French Waters

34. Judging English Failure • Initial plan could have worked • Didn’t act with resolution hoping for conciliatory measures • Adequate forces never provided • British didn’t use strategic initiative to advantage • No Unity of Command • No defined objective • Lord Germain directed to much from England: • Lacked timeliness, knowledge and may have been incompetent

35. Impact • Democratization of Warfare • “well regulated” militia • Trained and organized under a uniform system in all states and could be called into national service • balanced rights with obligated military service • impact of “peoples army” fighting for cause vice professional army • new concept of total war for total victory (conscription/draft)

36. Impact • Changed tactics • Rifle • increased range • improved accuracy • made linear tactics difficult • British adopted American tactics • skirmishes • cover • concealment

37. Leaders • Great Britain • King George in England (mercenaries) • Gage in America • Boston Massacre • William Howe • Henry Clinton • Burgoyne

38. Leaders • Washington • Horatio Gates • Charles Lee • Philip Schulyer • Artemas Ward • Isreal Putnam

40. Battles • Concord and Lexington Apr 1775 • Paul Revere “One if by land, two if by sea” • British (Col Smith) to destroy military stores) • Left at 2200 at night and were miserable • Volunteer officers, thrill seekers. Regulars were sick • 60 pound of gear, wet and tired. • Lexington • Rebels tried to leave and were fired upon, did not lay down weapons • Capt Jonas Parker and 7 others killed • One British soldier wounded

41. Battles • Entire population was under arms and fought the British (Lord Percy) back to Boston • British lost 259 men • Militia Proved its value • Result was that Gage was not surrounded on Boston • Continental Congress formed the “Army of the United Colonies under Washington • Benedict Arnold Emerged

42. Concord and Lexington • Concord • Col Barrett on the North Bridge • 3 companies of minutemen and one alarm company under Prescott • 400 men all told • British opened fire on the approaching rebels • British won initial battle but a 16 mile gantlet was formed by militia • Broke the British discipline • Ruthless on both sides • Losses: British: 273 Rebels: 93

43. Concord and Lexington • Militia Proved its value • Result was that Gage was not surrounded on Boston • Continental Congress formed the “Army of the United Colonies under Washington • Benedict Arnold Emerged

45. Battles • Arnold/Allen took Ticonderoga and captured 120 light and heavy artillery pieces • Undertook and expedition to take Canada

46. Battles • Bunker Hill • British – Gage wanted the rebels off the hill (Bunker and Breeds) • Ordered Howe to take Bunker Hill • Howe attacked Breed’s hill twice without success and finally a third time and was successful (rebels out of ammo) • Cost: British 1,054 Rebels 441 • Very heavy % for both • Howe was a mental casuality