Evolution of Warfare

Evolution of Warfare Intro Military Terms and Concepts Capt Bartis

Outline • Definitions • Threads of Continuity • Internal • External • Principles of War • Levels of War • Forms of Strategy • Operations and Tactics • Terms

Objectives • Understand internal and external threads of continuity • Understand the Principles of War • Become familiar with levels of war, forms of strategy, categories of operations and tactics, terms

Common Threads of All Definitions • 1. Armed Conflict - the duel • 2. Force - the means • 3. Impulse Over Will - conflict is the common denominator

Definitions of War • “ Conflict carried on by force of arms as between nations or states.” • “Any conflict between rival groups by force of arms or other means,…recognized as a legal conflict.” (Preston and Wise) • “An act of force to compel the enemy to do our will.” (Clausewitz)

War is also • Instrument of Policy (derived via a political process) • War is the expression of both politics and policy. • Strategy must strive to achieve policy goals • Policy goals are created in the realm of politics

War is: • Organized violence • Waged by two or more distinguishable groups against each other • In pursuit of some political end • Sufficiently large in scale and in social impact to attract the attention of political leaders • Continued long enough for the interplay between the opponents to have some impact on political events

Definitions of Strategy(Greek = Generalship) • “The art and science of developing and using political, economic, psychological, and military forces as necessary during peace and war, to afford the maximum support to policies, in order to increase the probabilities and favorable consequences of victory and to lessen the chances of defeat.

Definitions of Strategy • “The science and art of employing the political, economic, psychological and military forces of adopted policies in peace or war.” (Webster) • “The science and art of military command exercised to meet the enemy in conflict under advantageous condition.” (Webster - 2nd def) • “The art of distributing and applying military means to fulfill the aims of policy.” (Hart) • A specific way of using specified means to achieve distinct ends.

Political Objectives National Strategy Supporting Strategies *Diplomatic *Economic *Military *Informational

Definitions of Operations • Operation - A military action or the carrying out of a strategic, tactical, service, training, or administrative military mission; the process of carrying on combat, including movement, supply, attack, defense, and maneuvers needed to gain the objectives of any battle or campaign. • A broad category of related tactical activities; for example, offense, defense, and retrograde

Definitions of Operations • Operational art - The employment of military forces to attain strategic and/or operational objectives through the design, organization, integration, and conduct of campaigns, major operations, and battles. Operational art translates the joint force commander's strategy into operational design, and, ultimately, tactical action, by integrating the key activities at all levels of war

Definitions of Tactics(Greek = to arrange, place, in battle formation) • The employment of units in combat. • The ordered arrangement and maneuver of units in relation to each other and/or to the enemy in order to use their full potentialities. • Tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP) • Tactics - the art and science of employing available means to win battles and engagements

Definitions of Tactics(Greek = to arrange, place, in battle formation) • “The science and art of disposing and maneuvering forces in combat.” (Webster) • “When the application of the military instrument merges into actual fighting, the dispositions for and the control of such direct actions are termed tactics.” (Hart) • The art of disposing military forces in the presence of, or with reference to, the enemy. It takes care of the method, conducts the marches, and fights the battles.

Planes or Levels • Grand Strategy – the articulation of national interests, objectives, policies and commitments to the use of national power. • Military Strategy – the military instrument of national power towards the accomplishment of the political objectives of the overall national strategy. • Operations/Campaigns • Tactics • How do military means relate to political ends?

Threads of Continuity • Ability to distinguish factors/changes in different ages, societies, and armies that are distinct • This common reference then provides us with THREADS OF CONTINUITY • Two groups: • Internal • External

Internal Threads of Continuity • Military professionalism: • Profession: occupation that requires specialized knowledge of a given field • Conduct, aims, and qualities of members who want to perfect this public service that is the conduct of war • Tactics: • Strictly military • Specific techniques groups use to win battles

Internal Threads (cont.) • Operations: • Also strictly military • Planning and conduct of campaigns designed to defeat enemy in specific area and time with simultaneous & sequential battles. • Links (military)strategy and (grand)tactics

Internal Threads (cont.) • Strategy: Long range plans and policies to use resources to achieve specific objectives • Applicable to military and government • National strategy vs Military strategy

Internal Threads (cont.) • Logistics and Administration: • Logistics: the providing, movement, and maintenance of all service and resources necessary to sustain military forces • Administration: mgmt of all services and resources necessary to sustain military forces • Provides the materials and people (resources) with which to conduct war • Design, development, acquisition, storage, mvemnt, distribution, maint., construction, medical care....

Internal Threads (cont.) • Military theory/doctrine: • Theory: the body of ideas concerned with warfare-especially the orgn and trng • Doctrine: the fundamental principles by which military organizations guide their actions • From Theory comes Doctrine +++++ • Generalship: the qualities and attributes required to control large forces—ties the internal threads together

External Threads of Continuity • Political: ideas/actions of govts or organized groups that affect the activities of whole societies • Social: popular attitudes, religious beliefs, morals, psychological makeup, education... • Economic: activities involving production, distribution and consumption of resources • Technology: use of knowledge and technique to gain the advantage

Types of Conflict • Military - bldg an empire • Political - balance of power • Economic - Anglo-Dutch wars • Religious/moral - Crusades • Ideological - Terrorism • Psychological – Cuban Missile Crisis • Note: most wars fit 2 or more types

Mass Objective Offensive Surprise Economy of Force Movement Unity of Command Security Simplicity Principles of War

Levels of War • Strategic - level at which nation or group of nations determines national or alliance scty objectives and then accomplishes the obj • Operational - major campaigns/ops planned, conductedand sustained w/i Aos • Tactical - battles are planned and executed to accomplish military objectives assigned to tactical units and task forces

Levels of War • Strategic level of war - The level of war at which a nation, often as a member of a group of nations, determines national or multinational (alliance or coalition) security objectives and guidance, and develops and uses national resources to accomplish these objectives. Activities at this level establish national and multinational military objectives; sequence initiatives; define limits and assess risks for the use of military and other instruments of national power; develop global plans or theater war plans to achieve these objectives; and provide military forces and other capabilities in accordance with strategic plans.

Levels of War - Operational • Operational level of war - The level of war at which campaigns and major operations are planned, conducted, and sustained to accomplish strategic objectives within theaters or areas of operations. Activities at this level link tactics and strategy by establishing operational objectives needed to accomplish the strategic objectives, sequencing events to achieve the operational objectives, initiating actions, and applying resources to bring about and sustain these events. These activities imply a broader dimension of time or space than do tactics; they ensure the logistic and administrative support of tactical forces, and provide the means by which tactical successes are exploited to achieve strategic objectives.

Levels of War • Tactical level of war - The level of war at which battles and engagements are planned and executed to accomplish military objectives assigned to tactical units or task forces. Activities at this level focus on the ordered arrangement and maneuver of combat elements in relation to each other and to the enemy to achieve combat objectives.

Ends in National Strategy • Victory - achievement of the political aims of the war. War must end and peace restored. • Survival – the continued existence of the political entity that is at war.

Ends in Military Strategy • Annihilation – Physically overpower the enemy’s military capacity, leaving him unable to resist our demands. Unlimited military objective. • Erosion – seek to raise the enemy’s cost so high that he will find ending the war on our terms more attractive than continuing the fight. Military objective is limited

Categories of Operations • Offensive • Defensive • Joint

Operational Designs • Center of Gravity • Which factors are critical? Which can the enemy not do without? Which if eliminated, will bend him most quickly to our will. • Those characteristics, capabilities, or localities from which a military force derives its freedom of action, physical strength, or will to fight. • The hub of all power and movement, on which everything depends. • Important sources of strength. Defend yours/attack his.

Operational Designs • Critical Vulnerability – a vulnerability, that if exploited, will do the most damage to the enemy’s ability to resist us. • Find out where he is strong, where is his attention focused and seek out his flanks and rear, where he does not expect us and where we can also cause the greatest psychological damage.

Operational Designs • Center of Gravity and Critical Vulnerabilityare complementary concepts. • COG looks at how to attack the enemy system from the perspective of seeking a source of strength • CV from the perspective of seeking weakness • CV is the pathway to attacking a COG • Both have the same purpose: to target our actions in such a way as to have the greatest effect on the enemy.-

Operational Designs • Culminating Point -The point in time and space when the attacker can no longer accomplish his purpose, or when the defender no longer has the ability to accomplish his purpose. This can be due to factors such as combat power remaining, logistic support, weather, morale, and fatigue

Operational Designs • Commander's intent.Guidance which enables subordinate leaders to act in a changing environment in the absence of additional orders. At a minimum, it must describe the result (end state of the battlefield) as related to the enemy and terrain. It is formulated by considering and/or stating the following five elements: • The purpose of the operation • The enemy's actions and intentions • The enemy's critical vulnerability and the commander's plan to exploit it • A vision of how the operation will unfold • The end state of the battlefield (MUST BE STATED)

Maneuver Warfare • "Maneuver warfare is a warfighting philosophy that seeks to shatter the enemy's cohesion through a series of rapid, violent, and unexpected actions which create a turbulent and rapidly deteriorating situation with which he cannot cope"

Maneuver verse Attrition • Maneuver warfare. Choosing when and where to fight, pitting our strengths against enemy weaknesses. The goal is to render the enemy incapable of resisting by shattering his moral and physical cohesion--his ability to fight as a whole. The focus is on defeating the enemy not necessarily destroying him • Attrition warfare. An approach to warfare that seeks victory through the cumulative destruction of the enemy by means of massive firepower, technology and prolonged combat. This method assumes that we can deliver more punishment than the enemy can withstand while he attempts to do the same to us. The focus here is on the physical destruction of the enemy and is usually associated with brutal battles that inflict substantial, but often avoidable casualties on both sides.

Maneuver Warfare Considerations • Focus on the enemy.Methodical, attrition-style warfare focuses internally on what you bring to the battle; in maneuver the look is outward on the enemy! We call this shaping the battlefield. • Full understanding of commander's intent is critical. • Think ahead, visualize the battle through the enemy's eyes. • Attempt to shape the general conditions in our favor. • Do not become inflexible--leave yourself at least two ways to win.

Maneuver Warfare Considerations • Act quicker than the enemy can react. • OODA LOOP-BOYD Cycle. Observe-Orient-Decide-Action. • Korea - Russian MIG, greater speed, acceleration, armament vs US F-86 Sabrejet's bubble canopy/hydraulic controls, better maneuverability. • Applies to all warfare, particularly maneuver warfare.

Maneuver Warfare Considerations • Tempo • Maintaining a pace of operations with which the enemy cannot cope. • Causing sensory overload on enemy command and control. • OODA Loop--The enemy faces numerous dilemmas at the same time. • Can be sustained by prudent use of all available ground, sea, and air assets. Supporting arms, electronic warfare, counter-battery radars, JOINT-STARS, etc. • Desert Storm, a classic example of putting an enemy in a dilemma through TEMPO

Maneuver Warfare Considerations • Support maneuver by fire.Through the use of Combined Arms. The full integration of arms in such a way that in order to counteract the effects of one weapon system the enemy must make himself more vulnerable to the effects of another. • Put the enemy in a dilemma--a "no-win" situation. • Accomplished through tactics and techniques. • Take advantage of the complimentary characteristics of weapons systems and units. • Epitomizes the use of combined arms.

Maneuver Warfare Considerations • Issue Mission-type Orders. • Mission Tactics. "Mission tactics are just as the name implies: The tactics of assigning a subordinate mission without specifying how the mission must be accomplished. We leave the manner of accomplishing the mission to the subordinate, thereby allowing him the freedom--and establishing the duty--to take whatever steps he deems necessary based on the situation. The senior prescribes the method of execution only to the degree that is essential for coordination."

Maneuver Warfare Considerations • Mission Orders • Mission orders can be a full five-paragraph order or a frag order, issued verbally or in writing. • The key characteristic of a mission order is its mission statement which specifies the task and its purpose but not how to actually accomplish it. • The senior commander should know how the subordinate intends to accomplish the task. (Brief-back/confirmation brief if time permits) • There remains a need for control, coordination, lateral communications. • Mission orders must always address at a minimum: • The commander's intent statement. • The mission statement. • Designation of main effort status to one of the subordinate units..

Maneuver Warfare Considerations • Commander's Intent. Commander's intent is guidance provided to subordinates which enables them to act in a changing environment in the absence of additional orders. At a minimum, it must describe the result (end state of the battlefield) the commander wants related to his force, the enemy and terrain. • The commander's intent statement is included in every operations order. (para .1.b and para 3.a.1) It is prepared and presented by the commander to their subordinates. • During the execution of an operation, a unit's mission may change but the commander's intent will remain the same. • Subordinates must know the commander's intent two levels up. • The commander's intent has priority over all other considerations; it focuses initiative in the absence of guidance.

Maneuver Warfare Considerations • Avoid enemy strength and attack enemy weakness. These are defined as Surfaces and Gaps. • Enemy strengths and weaknesses. • Pit our strengths against the enemy's weaknesses. • Physical aspects. • Intangible aspects. • Flexibility is essential. • Exploit tactical opportunities developed or located by subordinate units.

Maneuver Warfare Considerations • Always designate a Main Effort. • The commander's bid for victory, the knockout punch within his tactical plan. • Every operation, whether offensive or defensive in nature, requires the designation of main effort status to one of the subordinate units. • All other units must support the main effort directly or indirectly. • The main effort was formerly known as the POME, FOME, FOE, SCHWERPUNKT, etc.

Maneuver Warfare Considerations • Avoid set rules and patterns. • Act boldly and decisively. • Provide for security of the force. • COMMAND FROM THE FRONT

Battlefield Dynamics • Friction. The myriad of factors that make, "the simple seem so difficult." • May be mental--as in indecision over a tactic or a course of action. • May be physical--as in effective enemy fire or a terrain obstacle that must be overcome. • May be external--imposed by the enemy action, environment or luck. • May be internal--self-induced by over-reliance on a particular arm, technology, or complicated plans.

Battlefield Dynamics • Uncertainty. The factors all of which seek to undermine our well-thought plans generate an atmosphere known as the "fog of war." Coupled with friction, chaos reigns. • Disorder. A corollary of friction, fog and uncertainty. Caused by the constant push-pull of combat that results in conflicting, incomplete and/or inaccurate information. • Human Reaction.Because of the overriding moral dimension of war, ammo counts, force ratios, orders of battle, or any mathematical computation will not assure victory. The human factor will be decisive. Preparing for the human reaction and the hardship of war is among the most significant challenges of the commander. • Violence and Danger. The result of fear, hatred, and loss of friends will have a debilitating effect on your Marines. You must constantly be aware that controlling violence, rather than initiating it, will be the most daunting challenge.

Evolution of Warfare