MEMORY :

1. MEMORY: Persistence of learning over time

2. INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL: • With memory, mind like a computer • Requires three steps:

3. ENCODING: Putting information into memory system 3 types of codes: 1. Visual/structural codes: Encode by how it looks 2. Acoustic codes: Encode by how it sounds 3. Semantic codes: Encode by meaning of information

4. ENCODING-LEVELS OF PROCESSING Craik and Lockhart-memory is affected by how deeply we process during encoding Shallow processing: superficial (looks,sounds) Deep (elaborative) processing: semantic -create meaning, associations with existing memories Shallow processing Deeper processing

5. HOW WE ENCODE: • http:// http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Studying.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Girl_eating_yogurt_parfait_-_Flickr_-_USDAgov.jpg AUTOMATIC ENCODING: remember without conscious effort (time, space) EFFORTFUL ENCODING: encode purposefully with conscious effort (names, information)

6. THREE STAGE MODEL: Atkinson-Schiffrin Model: • 3 memory systems:

7. SENSORY MEMORY: Duration: Fraction of a second Capacity: Holds ALL sensory information Vast amount of information Selective Attention: awareness/focus Determines what will be encoded and moved into Short-Term Memory Sensory register for all senses: -iconic memory: vision-tenths of a second -eidetic imagery: photographic memory -echoic memory: sounds-4 seconds

8. GEORGE SPERLING’S RESEARCH: • George Sperling flashed a group of letters (see left) for 1/20 of a second. People could recall only about half of the letters • When he signaled to recall a particular row with a specific tone, they could do so with near-perfect accuracy. Research shows that sensory memory holds all sensory information

9. SHORT-TERM MEMORY: Duration: about 30 seconds Capacity: average 7 pieces of information (George Miller) Working memory /short term memory -where we sort and encode information before transferring it to long-term memory, or forgetting it. -where we think, where we are conscious.

10. CHUNKING: Grouping information into meaning units -increases capacity of STM Example: 5558675309 vs. 555-867-5309 Mnemonic devices: tricks to aid memory Example: ROY G BIV for the color spectrum

11. REHEARSAL: • Maintenance rehearsal: This is a process where information is repeated to keep it from fading while in working memory. • Elaborative rehearsal: (deep processing) better for remembering. Giving meaning to information, relating it to what you know. • Rehearsal keeps info in STM and moves it into LTM

12. LONG TERM MEMORY: Permanent memory Duration: unlimited Capacity: unlimited

13. LONG-TERM POTENTIATION: Physical change in the brain during memory storage -happens in synapse, more efficient at transmitting signals http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LTP_Stage.png

14. EXPLICIT MEMORY/DECLARATIVE: Conscious, intentional recollection of previous experiences and information 2 types: Semantic memory: facts and general knowledge Episodic memory: personal events of life -Flashbulb memory: very detailed, emotional memories http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:National_Park_Service_9-11_Statue_of_Liberty_and_WTC_fire.jpg

15. IMPLICIT MEMORY: Memories not easily brought into conscious awareness Procedural memory: how to perform tasks http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Fellow_on_a_push-bike%2C_Route_45%2C_Swindon_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1716260.jpg

16. LTM ORGANIZATION: Semantic network model: information is stored in a connected fashion Parallel distributed processing model: memory processes take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections -We are constantly encoding, storing, relating, making meaning, retrieving at the same time

17. NEUROANATOMY OF MEMORY: • Hippocampus information in the working memory is changed over to long term memories. • Amygdala memories that have strong emotional connections. • Cerebellum procedural memories hippocampus http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hippocampus.png

18. RETRIEVAL: Locating and recovering information from memory 2 methods: Recall: retrieval of previously learned info -Essay test; police sketch of a suspect Recognition: identification of previously learned items -Multiple choice test; police line-up

19. SERIAL POSITION EFFECT: the sequence in which material is presented affects memory • Generally items in the middle are remembered less. Primacy: remember the first items Recency: remember last items

20. RETRIEVAL CUES: Something that helps us to remember Context-dependent memory: remember better in same physical stetting where learned State-dependent memory: remember better in same physiological/psychological state Mood-congruent memory: remember better in same mood

21. RECONSTRUCTION OF MEMORY: Elizabeth Loftus Memories are constructed -not like movie in your head -has holes and gaps -they are altered, revised to fit our schemas -eyewitness testimony is unreliable http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Elizabeth_Loftus-TAM_9-July_2011.JPG

22. FORGETTING: Forgetting is greatest just after learning-don’t use then it decays Distributed practice: spacing out study sessions increases retrieval http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Ebbinghaus_Forgetting_Curve.jpg Herman Ebbinhausresearch on forgetting Curve of forgetting:

23. INTERFERENCE: Other information blocks retrieval Proactive interference: old information blocks the retrieval of new information -can’t remember friend’s new phone number, because you keep dialing the old one Retroactive interference: new information blocks the retrieval of old information -can’t remember assignments from 1st period because of all the class since then

24. AMNESIA: Severe loss of memory -Retrograde amnesia: memory loss of the past -due to head trauma -can’t remember before the accident -Anterograde amnesia: inability to put new information into memory -due to damage to hippocampus -H.M.-famous case study -epileptic had hippocampus removed -no new declarative memories, but could procedural