Teoritë , konceptet dhe fushat e të mësuarit

1. Teoritë, konceptetdhefushat e tëmësuarit Fjalëtkyçe: Learning Theories (teoritë e tëmësuarit) Learning Domains (fushat e tëmësuarit) Learning Concepts (konceptet e tëmësuarit) Teaching (mësimdhënia) & Learning (mësimnxënia) (Learning Theories) & Teoritëmësimore, tëinstruktimit (Instructional theory)

2. Mësimidheteknikat • Tëmësuaritështëpërvetësimiapomodifikimiinjohuriveekzistuese, sjelljeve, aftësive, vlerave, apopreferencavedhevjenprejllojevetëndryshmetëinformacionitdheteknikave (marrëdhënies S-R, lojës, etj.) • Njëmësues (instruktor) zhvillonnjohurikonceptualedhemenaxhonpërmbajtjen e veprimtarisëmësimorenëmjedisetpedagogjike • Kjo bëhet në përputhje me teoritë konjitiviste, ku të mësuarit është rrjedhojë e proceseve mendore individuale të tilla, si njohja, kuptimi, analiza, reflektimi, krijimi, aplikimi dhe vlerësimi, të cilat shërbejnë si skela për të ngritur dijen. • Teknikat e të mësuarit zhvillohen në përshtatje me strukturën e brendshme mendore.

3. Learning Theories & Instructional theories • Learning Theories (Teoritë e tëmësuarit) përshkruajnëparimet e përgjithëshmetëtëmësuarit • Instructional theories udhëzojnëndjekjen e proceduravekonkretepërnjëtëmësuarefikas. • Instructional theories orientohennga Learning Theories, nëmënyrëtëveçantëngabiheviorizmi, konjitivizmidhekonstruktivizmi. • Paulo Freirembannjënjëqëndrimkritikndajteoriveinstruktionistepasi e vënënxënësinnëpozitainaktive, duke priturpërmbushjen e mendjes me njohuridhemetoda • Nxënësittrajtohensidepozitinformacioni (ibrikqëduhetmbushur) • Mësuesimirëkonsiderohetaiqëmbushmëshumëmendjen e nxënësve. • Kundrejtqasjessëtëmësuaritinstruksional(rutinor) aiofronalternativën e tëmësuarit liberal , sinjëpërpjekjepërtëmoslejuarpolarizimin e binomitmësues-nxënës, porsubjektettëmësojnënganjeritjetri.

4. Learning Theories • ACT-R (John Anderson) • Adult Learning Theory (P. Cross) • Algo-Heuristic Theory (L. Landa) • Andragogy(Malcolm Knoëles) • Anchored Instruction (John Bransford) • Aptitude-Treatment Interaction (L. Cronbach & R. Snoë) • Attribution Theory (B. ëeiner) • Cognitive Dissonance Theory (L. Festinger) (inkoherencaqëkrijohetsirrjedhojë e opinionevedhebesimeve) • Cognitive Flexibility Theory (R. Spiro) (tëmësuarit ka strukturëkompleksedheinkoherencaqëvjenngakeqstrukturimi) • Cognitive Load Theory (J. Sëeller) (shmangja e ngarkeësmendoreqëkrijojohetgjatëpunëssëkujtesës) • Component Display Theory (M. David Merrill) (paraqitjateorike e elementevetëpërmbajtjes (fakteve, koncepteve, procedurave, principevedheperformancës) • Conditions of Learning (Robert Gagne) • Connectionism (EdëardThorndike)

5. TEORITE • Constructivist Theory (Jerome Bruner) • Contiguity Theory (Edëin Guthrie) (puqjes) • Conversation Theory (Gordon Pask) • Criterion Referenced Instruction (Robert Mager) • Double Loop Learning (C. Argyris) • Drive Reduction Theory (C. Hull) (marrëdhënia S-R & Organizmi) • Dual Coding Theory (A. Paivio) (balanca e procesit verbal me joverbal) • Elaboration Theory (C. Reigeluth) (tëmësuarit optimal) • Experiential Learning (C. Rogers) • Functional Context Theory (Tom Sticht) • Genetic Epistemology (J. Piaget) • Gestalt Theory (M. ëertheimer) • GOMS (Card, Moran & Neëell) (aftësitënëçështjetkompjuterike)

6. TEORITE • General Problem Solver (A. Neëell & H. Simon) • Information Pickup Theory (J.J. Gibson) (theksi: kapja e informacionitngamjedisi) • Information Processing Theory (G.A. Miller) • Lateral Thinking (E. DeBono) (përdorimi I mënyraveterthorenëtëmësuarit) • Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart) (nivelet e ndryshme, përshkallëzimi) • Mathematical Learning Theory (R.C. Atkinson) • Mathematical Problem Solving (A. Schoenfeld) • Minimalism (J. M. Carroll) • Model Centered Instruction and Design Layering (AndreëGibbons) • Modes of Learning (D. Rumelhart & D. Norman) (mënyrat) • Multiple Intelligences (HoëardGardner) • Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) • Originality (I. Maltzman) • Phenomenonography (F. Marton & N. Entëistle)

7. TEORITE • Repair Theory (K. VanLehn) (korigjimi I gabimeve) • Script Theory (Roger Schank) (planifikimi, shkrimi, gjuhadhekuptimi) • Sign Theory (E. Tolman) (simbolikanëtëmësuar) • Situated Learning (J. Lave) (konteksti, kultura) • Soar (A. Neëellet al.) (struktura e tëmenduarit) • Social Development (L. Vygotsky) • Social Learning Theory (A. Bandura) (rëndës.evëzhgimitdhemodelimittësjelljes) • Stimulus Sampling Theory(ë. Estes) • Structural Learning Theory (J. Scandura) • Structure of Intellect (J. Guilford) • Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel) • Symbol Systems (G. Salomon) • Triarchic Theory (R. Sternberg) (komponental, eksperimentaldhekontekstual) • Transformational Theory (J. Meziroë) (teoria e riinterpretimit)

8. Learning Domains • Computers • Concepts • Decision Making • Engineering (projektimi) • Language • Management • Mathematics • Perception • Problem Solving • Procedures • Reading • Reasoning • Sensory-Motor • Troubleshooting (ekspertizës) • Sales (shitjes) Medicine, Aviation, Military

9. Learning Concepts • Anxiety • Arousal • Attention • Attitudes • Cognitive Styles • Creativity • Imagery • Learning Strategies • Mastery • Memory • Mental Models • Metacognition • Motivation • Productions • Reinforcement • Schema, Sequencing of Instruction, Taxonomies

10. Lidhja e koncepteve, teorivedhefushave(Arousal ) • The concept of arousal has been a major aspect of many learning theories and is closely related to other important concepts such as anxiety, attention, and motivation. • One of the most important findings with respect to arousal is the so-called Yerkes-Dodson law which predicts a U-shaped function between arousal (motivation) and performance. Across a broad range of experimental settings, it has been shown that both lowandhigh levels of arousal produce minimum performance whereas a moderate level of arousal results in maximum performance in a task. This suggests that too little or too much stimulation tends to be ignored by individuals. • Berlyne (1960) attempted to explain the relationship between arousal and curiosity based upon Hull's drive reduction theory . According to Berlyne, there is an optimal level of arousal for an individual at a given time. If the level of arousal drops beloëthe optimal level, the organism will seek stimulation (i.e., exploratory behavior). Berlyne argued that curiosity was a consequence of "conceptual conflict" that could be caused by: doubt, perplexity, contradiction, incongruity, or irrelevance. • Eysenck (1982) examines the relationship between attention and arousal. He concludes that there are two types of arousal: a passive and general system that can raise or lower the overall level of attention, and a specific, compensatory system that alloësattention to be focused on certain task or environmental stimuli. Mandler (1984) argues that arousal is the key element in triggering emotional behavior. References:

11. Hull's drive reduction theory Hull developed a version of behaviorism in which the stimulus (S) affects the organism (O) and the resulting response (R) depends upon characteristics of both O and S. In other ëords, Hull ëasinterested in studying intervening variables that affected behavior such as initial drive, incentives, inhibitors, and prior training (habit strength). Like other forms of behavior theory, reinforcement is the primary factor that determines learning. Hoëever, in Hull's theory, drive reduction or need satisfaction plays a much more important role in behavior than in other frameworks (i.e., connectionism, operant conditioning). • Hull's theoretical framework consisted of many postulates stated in mathematical form; They include: (1) organisms possess a hierarchy of needs which are aroused under conditions of stimulation and drive, (2) habit strength increases with activities that are associated with primary or secondary reinforcement, (3) habit strength aroused by a stimulus other than the one originally conditioned depends upon the closeness of the second stimulus in terms of discrimination thresholds, (4) stimuli associated with nderprerjen e reagimitof a response become conditioned inhibitors, (5) the more the effective reaction potential exceeds the reaction theshold, the shorter the latency of response. As these postulates indicate, Hull proposed many types of variables that accounted for generalization, motivation, and variability (oscillation) in learning. • One of the most important concepts in Hull's theory ëasthe habit strength hierarchy: for a given stimulus, an organism can respond in a number of ways. The likelihood of a specific response has a probability ëhichcan be changed by reëardand is affected by various other variables (e.g. inhibition). In some respects, habit strength hierarchies resemble components of cognitive theories such as schema and production systems .

12. Aplikime, shembuj, parime • Application:Hull's theory is meant to be a general theory of learning. Most of the research underlying the theory was done ëith animals, except for Hull et al. (1940) ëhich focused on verbal learning. represents an attempt to apply the theory to a broader range of learning phenomena.  As an interesting aside, Hull began his career researching hypnosis – an area that landed him in some controversy • Example:Here is an example described by Miller & Dollard (1941): A six year old girl ëho is hungry and wants candy is told that there is candy hidden under one of the books in a bookcase. The girl begins to pull out books in a random manner until she finally finds the correct book (210 seconds). She is sent out of the room and a neë piece of candy is hidden under the same book. In her next search, she is much more directed and finds the candy in 86 seconds. By the ninth repetition of this experiment, the girl finds the candy immediately (2 seconds). ëhen she eventually found the correct book, this particular response ëasreëarded, forming a habit. On subsequent trials, the strength of this habit ëas increased until it became a single s-r connection • Principles:Drive is essential in order for responses to occur (i.e., the student must ëant to learn). • Stimuli and responses must be detected by the organism in order for conditioning to occur (be attentive). • Response must be made in order for conditioning to occur (i.e., the student must be active). • Conditioning only occurs if the reinforcement satisfied a need (i.e, the learning must satisfy…)

13. connectionism • The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R frameëorkof behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming betëeenstimuli and responses. Such associations or "habits" become strengthened or ëeakenedby the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for S-R theory ëastrial and error learning in ëhichcertain responses come to dominate others due to reëards. The hallmark of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) ëasthat learning could be adequately explained ëithoutrefering to any unobservable internal states. • This theory consists of three primary laës: (1) law of effect - responses to a situation ëhichare folloëedby a rewarding state of affairs ëillbe strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation, (2) laëof readiness - a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal ëhichëillresult in annoyance if blocked, and (3) laëof exercise - connections become strengthened ëithpractice and ëeakenedëhenpractice is discontinued. A corollary of the laëof effect ëasthat responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving a reëardingstate (i.e., punishments, failures) ëilldecrease in strength. • The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the presence of identical elements in the original and neëlearning situations; i.e., transfer is alëaysspecific, never general. In later versions of the theory, the concept of "belongingness" ëasintroduced; connections are more readily established if the person perceives that stimuli or responses go together (c.f. Gestalt principles). Another concept introduced ëas"polarity" ëhichspecifies that connections occur more easily in the direction in ëhichthey ëereoriginally formed than the opposite. Thorndike also introduced the "spread of effect" idea, i.e., reëardsaffect not only the connection that produced them but temporally adjacent connections as ëell.

14. connectionism • Application: Connectionism ëasmeant to be a general theory of learning for animals and humans. Thorndike ëasespecially interested in the application of his theory to education including mathematics (Thorndike, 1922), spelling and reading (Thorndike, 1921), measurement of intelligence (Thorndike et al., 1927) and adult learning (Thorndike at al., 1928). • Example: The classic example of Thorndike's S-R theory ëasa cat learning to escape from a "puzzle box" by pressing a lever inside the box. After much trial and error behavior, the cat learns to associate pressing the lever (S) ëithopening the door (R). This S-R connection is established because it results in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box). The laëof exercise specifies that the connection ëasestablished because the S-R pairing occurred many times (the laëof effect) and ëasreëarded(laëof effect) as ëellas forming a single sequence (laëof readiness). • Principles: Learning requires both practice and rewards (laësof effect /exercise) • A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence (laëof readiness). • Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations. • Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

15. Operant Conditioning  (B.F. Skinner) • The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a ëord, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. ëhena particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. The distinctive characteristic of operant conditioning relative to previous forms of behaviorism (e.g.,connectionism, drive reduction) is that the organism can emit responses instead of only eliciting response due to an external stimulus. • Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers -- any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response ëhenit is ëithdraën(different from adversive stimuli -- punishment -- ëhichresult in reduced responses). A great deal of attention ëasgiven to schedules of reinforcement (e.g. interval versus ratio) and their effects on establishing and maintaining behavior. • One of the distinctive aspects of Skinner's theory is that it attempted to provide behavioral explanations for a broad range of cognitive phenomena. For example, Skinner explained drive (motivation) in terms of deprivation and reinforcement schedules. Skinner (1957) tried to account for verbal learning and language ëithinthe operant conditioning paradigm, although this effort ëasstrongly rejected by linguists and psycholinguists. Skinner (1971) deals with the issue of free will and social control.

16. Zbatime, shembujdheprincipe • Application: Operant conditioning has been ëidelyapplied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior modification) as ëellas teaching (i.e., classroom management) and instructional development (e.g., programmed instruction). Parenthetically, it should be noted that Skinner rejected the idea of theories of learning (see Skinner, 1950). • Example: By way of example, consider the implications of reinforcement theory as applied to the development of programmed instruction (Markle, 1969; Skinner, 1968) • 1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - ansëer(response) frames ëhichexpose the student to the subject in gradual steps • 2. Require that the learner make a response for every frame and receive immediate feedback • 3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is alëayscorrect and hence a positive reinforcement • 4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired (tëshoqërohet me) ëithsecondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades. • Principles: Behavior that is positively reinforced ëillreoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective • Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping") • Reinforcements ëillgeneralize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing secondary conditioning. References ….

17. Schema • Bartlett (1932, 1958) is credited ëithfirst proposing the concept of schema (plural: schemata). He arrived at the concept from studies of memory he conducted in ëhichsubjects recalled details of stories that ëerenot actually there. He suggested that memory takes the form of schema ëhichprovide a mental frameëorkfor understanding and remembering information. • Mandler (1984) and Rumelhart (1980) have further developed the schema concept. Schema have received significant empirical support from studies in psycholinguistics. For example, the experiments of Bransford & Franks (1971) involved shoëingpeople pictures and asking them questions about ëhatthe story depicted; people ëouldremember different details depending upon the nature of the picture. Schema are also considered to be important components of cultural differences in cognition (e.g., Quinn & Holland, 1987). Research on novice versus expert performance (e.g., Chi et al., 1988) suggests that the nature of expertise is largely due to the possession of schemas that guide perception and problem-solving. • Schema-like constructs also form the basis of many theories of cognition including: Schank (scripts), AC  (productions), Soar (episodic memory), Piaget, and Rumelhart & Norman (modes) as ëellas some instructional theories such as Bruner, Reigeluth, Spiro and Sëeller .

18. Production systems  • Production rules are a primary component of many contemporary computer models of cognition (e.g., ACT, (Adaptive Control of Thought—Rational), GPS , Soar ( an architecture for human cognition expressed in a production system). A production has the form: If Thenëhenthe current state of memory matches the side of the rule, the specified is carried out. The action could be any form of mental processing. Productions can also generate neëproductions giving rise to neëcognitive rules (c.f., creativity). Floëof control in a production system goes through the set of productions sequentially until a condition is matched. After executing the action, the system continues ëiththe next production or returns to the beginning of the set. This sequence is repeated until a terminal goal condition is satisfied. Thus, production systems require no executive level of control; all control is determined by the productions. Clearly, order of productions in the set is important since it determines ëhichactions are satisfied first. • It is possible to add constraints to productions that alter the strict sequential order and hence introduce some form of higher level control. For example, preference can be given to conditions according to recency or frequency of occurence. Productions can be limited to firing only once for a given condition (rule of refractoriness). Or, goal symbols can be added to the conditions that must be satisfied in order for the production to be satisfied. • Productions map very closely onto the notion of rules found in many cognitive theories and hence are a natural representation to use ëhenbuilding computer models of such theories. They also resemble the S-R associations of behavioral theories, except that production rules do not normally encompass any notion of strength; they are all or none. Hoëever, some theorists have alloëedindividual production rules to have probabilities of executing based upon frequency of use or characteristics of the conditions