工学英語への近道 ESP with OCHA and PAIL

1. 工学英語への近道ESP with OCHA and PAIL Judy Noguchi

2. Product-oriented PAIL Purpose Audience Information Language features Process-oriented OCHA Observe Classify Hypothesize Apply Learning a language via ESP (English for Specific Purposes)

3. But first, some questions • Q1 Why is English so important for science and engineering? • Q2 Why is the language of science different from other types of English? • Q3 What is ESP? • Q4 Why is ESP necessary? • Q5 How can ESP be efficiently and effectively taught/learned?

4. Q1 Why is English so important for science and engineering? • Need to participate in an international dialogue Gross (1990) The Rhetoric of Science: "facts are by nature linguistic— no language, no facts." [203]

5. Scientific “facts” • Must be recognized and acknowledged • Should be used as part of the knowledge system • Should be presented in linguistically acceptable form

6. Knowledge production is an “ongoing process of coordinating action among persons” and “language (and other actions) gain their intelligibility in their social use, as they are coordinated with the actions of others” (Gergen 2001:119). Not only the information being conveyed but the language used to convey it is itself an important part of the message.

7. Q2 Why is the language of science different from other types of English? Birth of a new genre • Scientific progress in the 17th century >> Need for a new expository genre to describe them • Traditional literary essays did not suit the epistemic approach used by men of science following the approach of Francis Bacon Gotti (2005:171)

8. The language of science differs from other types of English because It was a new genre specifically developed to express its activities and claims to discuss its claims to construct knowledge systems based on these claims

9. Q3 What is ESP? • EGP = English for General Purposes • 個人のための英語 • ESP = English for Specific Purposes • プロのための英語

10. ESP is language that “works” EAP English for academic purposes An ESP program for students of law EOP English for occupational purposes An ESP program for international medical graduates EVP English for vocational purposes An ESP program for union members in 25 factories Orr, Thomas (ed) 2002 English for specific purposes. Alexandria: TESOL

11. Sound patterns form words 音のパターンが単語となる Word patterns form phrases and clauses 単語のパターンが句や節となる Phrase and clause patterns form sentences 句や節のパターンが文章となる Sentence patterns form texts 文章パターンがテキストとなる Text patterns form genres テキストのパターンがジャンルとなる Pronunciation & prosody Collocation Grammar Text structure Genre structure Language is composed of patterns 言語はパターンで構成されている

12. “’Genre’ is a recognizable communicative event characterized by a set of communicative purpose(s) identified and mutually understood by the members of the professional or academic community in which it regularly occurs.” Swales’ definition (1981, 1985, 1990a) summarized by Bhatia in Analysing Genres (1993:13)

13. Q4 Why is ESP (genre) necessary? • Information explosion • The amount of information produced in the world increases by 30% every year.  • Going back in time • A weekly edition of the New York Times contains more information than the average person was likely to come across in a lifetime in seventeenth-century England. (Wurman 1989, 32) • Overload psychology • Only 18% of the stories in an average newspaper are read in full. (Graber 1988, 249)

14. How to deal with the overload • Attention arousal: noticing what you are interested in • Selective attention: ignoring what is not needed • Schematic thinking: using knowledge structures and frameworks to organize information

15. Action Substance Form Q5 How ESP be taught/learned? Look at the patterns of genre texts!

16. Action Substance Form What is Action?

17. Action of a genre text • What is the text trying to do? • Make a claim based on research • Present a convincing argument about something • Appeal for funds • Promote a product

18. Action Substance Form What is Substance?

19. Content of a genre text • What is the message of the text? • Description of a newly developed method • Presentation of a new discovery • Explanation of a mechanism

20. Action Substance Form What is Form?

21. Form of a genre text • What are the features of the text? • Mode: spoken or written • PAIL • Purpose • Audience • Information • Language features

22. Action Substance Form Effect on the discourse community Even native speakers of the language need to learn genre awareness! Linguistic packaging for genre recognition Information for the discourse community

23. Write Like a Chemist • An essential guide to perfect your abilities to write journal articles, conference abstracts, scientific posters, and research proposals, so that you can reach your professional audience more effectively. • http://www.oup.com/us/companion.websites/9780195305074/?view=usa

24. Plant Physiology 2010Instructions for Authors Last updated February 25, 2010 http://www.plantphysiol.org/misc/ifora.shtml • Peer Review section • A manuscript that contains excellent science but otherwise requires extensive revision will, as a matter of policy, be declined.

25. Using OCHA to master the form • Observe features of a text • Rhetorical • Grammatical • Lexical • Technical • Phonological

26. Eyes lock on different letters when reading YORK (Reuters) - When we read our eyes lock on to different letters in the same word instead of scanning a page smoothly from left to right as previously thought, researchers said on Monday. Using sophisticated eye tracking equipment, the team looked at letters within a word and found that people combined parts of a word that were on average two letters apart, said Simon Liversedge, a cognitive psychologist at the University of Southampton. Lexical and Sublexical Influences on Eye Movements During ReadingSimon P. Liversedge and Hazel I. Blythe, University of Southampton (March 2007) In this paper, we briefly review some recent studies that have clearly demonstrated the importance of lexical factors on eye movements during reading. We introduce the reader to eye-movement recording and explain its importance within the field of experimental psychology as a tool with which we can examine the psychological processes underlying reading. We then provide a summary of (mainly) eye-movement experiments in three areas: reading disappearing text, reading text with transposed letters, and morphological processing of compound words. Throughout the paper our central claim is that processes associated with lexical identification exert a strong and quite immediate effect on eye-movement behaviour during reading. Genre analysis: Two texts, same topic, two genres

27. YORK (Reuters) - When we read our eyes lock on to different letters in the same word instead of scanning a page smoothly from left to right as previously thought, researchers said on Monday. Using sophisticated eye tracking equipment, the team looked at letters within a word and found that people combined parts of a word that were on average two letters apart, saidSimon Liversedge, a cognitive psychologist at the University of Southampton. News agency “Hook” Who? What? When? Where? How? Eyes lock on different letters when reading

28. Cognitive Science of LanguageLexical and Sublexical Influences on Eye Movements During ReadingSimon P. Liversedge and Hazel I. Blythe, University of Southampton (March 2007) • In this paper, we briefly review some recent studies that have clearly demonstrated the importance of lexical factors on eye movements during reading. We introduce the reader to eye-movement recording and explain its importance within the field of experimental psychology as a tool with which we can examine the psychological processes underlying reading. We then provide a summary of (mainly) eye-movement experiments in three areas: reading disappearing text, reading text with transposed letters, and morphological processing of compound words. Throughout the paper our central claim is that processes associated with lexical identification exert a strong and quite immediate effect on eye-movement behaviour during reading.

29. In this paper, we briefly review some recent studies that have clearly demonstrated the importance oflexical factors on eye movements during reading.We introducethe reader to eye-movement recordingand explain its importance within the field ofexperimental psychologyas a tool with which we can examinethe psychological processes underlying reading.We then provide a summary of(mainly) eye-movement experiments in three areas: reading disappearing text, reading text with transposed letters, and morphological processing of compound words.Throughout the paper our central claim is thatprocesses associated with lexical identification exert a strong and quite immediate effect on eye-movement behaviour during reading. Background & purpose Materials & methods Results and conclusion Cognitive Science of LanguageLexical and Sublexical Influences on Eye Movements During Reading(March 2007)Simon P. Liversedge and Hazel I. Blythe, University of Southampton

30. Collocations Lexical bundles (Cortes 2004, Biber and Barbieri 2007, Hyland 2007) Hint words/expressions Need to be taught Dressen-Hammouda (2008): “genre-based courses should also include instruction about both the target discipline's specialist knowledge frames as well as the implicit cues that help readers and writers reconstruct them.” Can help prevent patchwriting

34. Hyland (2008)

35. As can be seen: Lexical bundles and disciplinary variation Ken Hyland (2008) An important component offluent linguistic production is control of the multi-word expressions referred to as clusters, chunks or bundles.These areextended collocations which appear more frequently than expected by chance, helping to shape meanings in specific contexts and contributing to our sense of coherence in a text. Bundleshave begun to attract considerable attentionin corpus studies in EAP, although the extent to which they differ by disciplineremains an open question. This paper exploresthe forms, structures and functions of 4-word bundles in a 3.5 million word corpus of research articles, doctoral dissertations and Master’s theses in four disciplines to learn something of disciplinary variations in their frequencies and preferred uses.The analysis shows thatbundles are not only central to the creation of academic discourse, but that they offeran important means ofdifferentiating written texts by discipline.

36. As can be seen: Lexical bundles and disciplinary variation Ken Hyland An important component offluent linguistic production is control of the multi-word expressions referred to as clusters, chunks or bundles.These areextended collocations which appear more frequently than expected by chance, helping to shape meanings in specific contexts and contributing to our sense of coherence in a text. Bundleshave begun to attract considerable attentionin corpus studies in EAP, although the extent to which they differ by disciplineremains an open question. This paper exploresthe forms, structures and functions of 4-word bundles in a 3.5 million word corpus of research articles, doctoral dissertations and Master’s theses in four disciplines to learn something of disciplinary variations in their frequencies and preferred uses.The analysis shows thatbundles are not only central to the creation of academic discourse, but that they offeran important means ofdifferentiating written texts by discipline. Background (Importance) (Gap in knowledge) Aim of study & methods Results Conclusion

37. Google Scholar search April 3, 2010 • An important component of 約296,000件 • attract considerable attention 約3,210件 • remains an open question 約90,400件 • This paper explores 約83,300件 • The analysis shows that 約45,600件 • an important means of 約38,800件

38. Product-oriented PAIL Purpose Audience Information Language features Process-oriented OCHA Observe Classify Hypothesize Apply Learning a language via ESP (English for Specific Purposes)

39. ESP for realistic, attainable targets Halliday, MacIntosh and Strevens (1964): Rather than aiming for perfection of the “whole language,” which is an “impossible” task, it would be more realistic to set attainable targets for specific functions of the language that are needed for specific tasks. Mastering the ESP you need with OCHA and PAIL

40. References • Bhatia, V. K. (1993). Analysing genre: Language use in professional settings. London and New York: Longman. • Biber, D. and Barbieri, F. (2007) Lexical bundles in university spoken and written registers. English for Specific Purposes 26(3)263-286. • Cortes, V. (2006).Teaching lexical bundles in the disciplines: An example from a writing intensive history class. Linguistics and Education 17(4) 391-406. • Hyland, K. (2008) As can be seen: Lexical bundles and disciplinary variation. English for Specific Purposes 27(1)4-21. • Halliday, M. A. K. , MacIntosh, A.,Strevens, P. (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. London: Longman.

41. Noguchi, J. (2006). The science review article: An opportune genre in the construction of science. Bern: Peter Lang. • Robinson, M., Stoller, F., Constanza-Robinson, M., Jones, J. K. (2008) Write Like a Chemist. New York: Oxford University Press. • Swales, J. M. (1990). Genreanalysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. • Swales, J. M. (2004) Research genres: Explorations and applications. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.