Formal Argumentation Process and Tests of Good Evidence

1. Chapter 7 Argumentation The Formal Process

2. Steps! • Data-your evidence • Warrant-reasoning-logical explanation-your argument: always tie evidence to your arguments you are making in debate • Claim-conclusion you make-your proposition

3. Tests of Good Evidence • Is the evidence relevant to the claim? • Is there enough evidence to support the claim? Does the evidence come from many different sources? This is not an isolated incident? Unusual? • Recent/Most current evidence available! • Are your facts consistent with other facts to make your claim? • Is your evidence accessible?

4. Induction • Reasoning from specific instances to make a generalized conclusion about something • Example: • Nate says restaurant A has terrible service. • DJ says restaurant A has terrible service. • Megan says restaurant A has terrible service. • Restaurant A has terrible service. • Can be faulty! Hasty Generalization!

5. Tests of Induction • Are there a sufficient number examples to support case? • Are examples typical or common? • Any exceptions?

6. Deduction • Reasoning from general instance to a specific case • Syllogism • Major Premise: All teachers must have a teaching certificate and bachelor’s degree. • Minor Premise: Mrs. Bartel is a teacher • Conclusion: Therefore, Mrs. Bartel has a teaching certificate and a bachelor’s degree.

7. Tests of Deduction • Make sure major premise is true or accurate. • Cannot use negatives in syllogism • Make sure minor premise is a subset of the major premise: The basic idea is that if something is true of a class of things in general, this truth applies to all legitimate members of that class.

8. Sign Reasoning • Reach logical conclusion based on signs or physical evidence • Be careful-even though there may be many signs that indicate a logical conclusion, may not be accurate

9. Example of Sign Reasoning-Skin Cancer • A small lump (spot or mole) that is shiny, waxy, pale in color, and smooth in texture. • A red lump (spot or mole) that is firm • A sore or spot that bleeds or become crusty. Also look for sores that don't heal. • Rough and scaly patches on the skin. • Flat scaly areas of the skin that are red or brown. • Any new growth that is suspicious

10. Reasoning by Analogy • Comparisons: both literal and figurative • Literal: Compare similar things: Ohio’s economy is much like Pennsylvania’s economy, both industrial and farming. Since we have similar economies, we should institute a jobs program in Ohio like the one instituted in Pennsylvania • Make sure there are enough similarities to compare the two!

11. Reasoning by Analogy • Figurative: Comparison of two unlike things: Biting your nails is a bad habit just like smoking is: both are distasteful habits. • I would stay away from these type of analogies in your debate. Only to add emphasis, but can be attacked!

12. Fallacies • Something that is false or a mistaken idea • Catch your opponent using these and point fallacies out in your rebuttals or cross-examination period!

13. Bandwagon • Everyone is doing it, so should we! • Use of opinion polls in debate • Everyone is selfish; everyone is doing what he believes will make himself happier. The recognition of that can take most of the sting out of accusations that you're being "selfish." Why should you feel guilty for seeking your own happiness when that's what everyone else is doing, too?

14. Appeal to Tradition • Status quo-negative defense • Of course this mode of government is the best. We have had this government for over 200 years and no one has talked about changing it in all that time. So, it has got to be good.

15. Hasty Generalization • Jump to conclusions! • Sam is riding her bike in her hometown in Maine, minding her own business. A station wagon comes up behind her and the driver starts beeping his horn and then tries to force her off the road. As he goes by, the driver yells "get on the sidewalk where you belong!" Sam sees that the car has Ohio plates and concludes that all Ohio drivers are jerks!

16. Ad Hominem • Latin: against the man • Example: Bill: "I believe that abortion is morally wrong." Dave: "Of course you would say that, you're a priest." Bill: "What about the arguments I gave to support my position?" Dave: "Those don't count. Like I said, you're a priest, so you have to say that abortion is wrong. Further, you are just a lackey to the Pope, so I can't believe what you say."

17. Slippery Slope-Inch Mile • "We have to stop the tuition increase! The next thing you know, they'll be charging $40,000 a semester!" • "The US shouldn't get involved militarily in other countries. Once the government sends in a few troops, it will then send in thousands to die." • "You can never give anyone a break. If you do, they'll walk all over you." • "We've got to stop them from banning pornography. Once they start banning one form of literature, they will never stop. Next thing you know, they will be burning all the books!"

18. Equivocation • Doublespeak • The elements of the moral argument on the status of unborn life…strongly favor the conclusion that this unborn segment of humanity has a right not to be killed, at least. Without laying out all the evidence here, it is fair to conclude from medicine that the humanity of the life growing in a mother's womb is undeniable and, in itself, a powerful reason for treating the unborn with respect.

19. Equivocation • This argument equivocates on the word "humanity"—"the condition of being human"—which means "of, … or characteristic of mankind" (The Random House College Dictionary). The two relevant meanings here are: • "of…mankind," meaning being a member of the human species. • "characteristic of mankind." For instance, the "human heart" is "human" in this sense, since it is not a human being, but is the kind of heart characteristic of human beings.

20. Equivocation • Applying this to Alvaré's argument, it is true that the "humanity" of an embryo or fetus is medically undeniable, in the second sense of "human"—that is, it is a "human embryo or fetus." It is, however, an equivocation on "human" to conclude, as Alvaré did, that it "has a right not to be killed." Parts of the human body are "human" in this sense, but it is only a whole human being who has a right to life.

21. Arguing from Ignorance • Because something has not been disproved, it is essentially proven to be true! • Example: Although the United States never found evidence of an Iraqi nuclear weapons program, there is no doubt it existed. (And we know this how...)

22. Appeal to Authority • Just because someone said it is true, does not necessarily make it true! • This fallacy is committed when the person in question is not a legitimate authority on the subject. More formally, if person A is not qualified to make reliable claims in subject S, then the argument will be fallacious.

23. Appeal to Authority • Is this a matter which I can decide without appeal to expert opinion? If the answer is "yes", then do so. If "no," go to the next question: • Is this a matter upon which expert opinion is available? If not, then your opinion will be as good as anyone else's. If so, proceed to the next question: • Is the authority an expert on the matter? If not, then why listen? If so, go on:

24. Appeal to Authority • Is the authority biased towards one side? If so, the authority may be untrustworthy. At the very least, before accepting the authority's word seek a second, unbiased opinion. That is, go to the last question: • Is the authority's opinion representative of expert opinion? If not, then find out what the expert consensus is and rely on that. If so, then you may rationally rely upon the authority's opinion.