Chapter 7

1. Chapter 7 Social Effects

2. TV violence • Pornography • Stereotyping

3. TV Violence/Aggression • Gerbner defines violence as an overt expression of physical force (with or without weapon) against oneself or another or compelling action against one’s will under threat or actuality of being hurt or killed. He notes “intent” must be present. • Content analysis 1953 showed 3,421violent acts or threats in one week (remember 1953 and number of programs) • Prime Time remains consistent with 5 acts per hour on average

4. Objections • Menand criticizes how we categorize violent acts;cites Laugh In study • Jeffries writes “violence occurs in contexts that tend to encourage imitation (as when violence is committed by attractive role models) reinforces the possibility that television violence may promote anti-social effects.

5. Some Standards • Most research shows most violence is directed toward: • Women of all ages • Non-whites • Foreigners • Greenberg: much more verbal aggression than physical acts; especially sit coms • Police shows are unrealistic by high rate of solving crimes and the high number of investigations that end in violence

6. The Big Task • Jeffries “we must prove violence causes or leads to aggressive behavior or aggressive personality traits. At least three conditions must be met: 1)television must offer consistently violent portrayals of society; 2)viewers must be exposed to and pay attention to this programming; 3)these shows must exert strong psychological effects on viewers’ attitudes and behaviors.”

7. More • First two have been met. • We have proof: ratings and other studies • Third condition is the thrust of the research. • Question—is there a direct link between television violence and aggressive behavior. • Two types of research attempt to answer that question: lab experiment and field studies

8. Social Learning Theory • Bandura argued children can learn behaviors simply by watching live or symbolic models. • Individuals can acquire a great deal of information simply by watching others and without being directly reinforced. • Their decision to perform what they learned depends to a considerable degree on reinforcement contingencies, that is rewards and punishments.

9. Social Learning Theory • Bandura’s Bobo Doll • Bandura refines theory • Its utility to communication scholars is that it provides a framework for understanding the impact of media on cognitions and behaviors.

10. Aggressive Cues Theory • Aristotle’s Catharsis notion suggests, when applied to aggressive media, exposure could stimulate aggression, therefore draining off feelings of anger or hostility. (Feshbach and Singer) • Berkowitz TV violence would signal angry individuals to behave aggressively because the viewer would increasingly associate the violent portrayals with the object of his or her anger.

11. Aggressive Cues Theory • Berkowitz says “of particular importance is the individual’s interpretation of the mediated aggressive act. …aggression is in the mind of the beholder, and a movie will not activate aggression-associated thoughts unless the viewer regards what is seen as aggression.” • Priming suggests that exposure to media violence calls up aggressive ideas, which in turn prime other associated thoughts.

12. Aggressive Cues Theory • Priming says television violence provides cues that put individuals in touch with angry thoughts and feelings they previously experienced, calling up angry associations and making it more likely that individuals will translate anger into aggressive behavior.

13. Surveys and Field Experiments • Revealed that Social Learning Theory and Aggressive Cues Theory are problematic since correlations show only association, not causation, and are subject to at least three interpretations: • Television viewing leads to aggression • Aggressive individuals prefer violent television • The correlation is due to a third variable such as education, income, intelligence

14. Pornography • Definitions Justice Potter Stewart could not define it but knew it when he saw it • What is your definition? • 1986 Attorney General Report • Sexually violent materials • Nonviolent materials that involved degradation or domination of women • Nonviolent and nondegrading materials • Nudity • Child pornography

15. Arousal/Aggression • Most agree pornography induces arousal • Arousal rate is higher in men than in women • Malamuth has reported evidence that sexual arousal in response to imagining that one has forced a woman to act against her will is associated with a greater acceptance of aggression in nonsexual contexts.

16. Arousal/Aggression • Zillmann, Bryant, Comisky, Medoff proposed that the impact of erotica on aggression depends on the level or arousal and the emotions produced by exposure to sexual materials. • Sum up: • Experiments on pornography and male aggression indicate that nonaggressive pornography will increase aggression only if the viewer is angry and the content is highly displeasing

17. Arousal/Aggression • Sum up: • The results of the studies probing the impact of nonaggressive pornography on aggression toward women are inconsistent. • There is solid evidence that violent pornography can increase male aggression against women, perhaps through a priming mechanism.

18. Effects Research • Research shows significant correlation between rape rates and availability of pornography in all 50 states; the higher the circulation of sex-oriented magazines, the higher the rape rates. (Baron) • Prolonged exposure to nonaggressive pornographic materials can desensitize viewers on the subjects of sex and sex roles and can lead them to develop more calloused attitudes toward women.

19. Policy Perspectives • Conservative Moralist Theory argues that strong prescriptions against pornography are consistent with religious and secular values such as marriage and the preservation of heterosexual fidelity. • Liberal Theory derived from Libertarian thought, takes the diametrically opposite point of view.

20. Policy Perspectives • Liberal Theory views people as intelligent and rational beings able to distinguish truth from falsehood. As such, it argues for a free flow of information in society and contends society benefits by allowing its citizens to select from among a wide spectrum of materials on sex.

21. Policy Perspectives • Feminist/Social Responsibility Theory is characterized by a concern for community and a belief that individual rights (such as freedom to see whatever one wants) are secondary to society’s need to protect women (and men) from problems that are cause by pornographic films.

22. Stereotypes • Gerbner 1993 found in 1991-1992 Television season African Americans comprised 11 percent of the characters on prime time, 9 percent on daytime dramas, and less than 3 percent on Saturday morning shows. • Hispanic, Asian, and other minorities appeared even less

23. Stereotypes • Clark developed stages through which groups progress through over the years • Invisibility • Ridicule • Law and order enforcer • Respect • Let’s take African Americans; then gays and lesbians through these stages

24. Gender • Gender roles are largely defined by television portrayals. • Reflect changes in society in programming. • Let’s take women through the stages. • Attractiveness and image: Kenrick and Gutierres demonstrated that exposure to an episode of Charlie’s Angels led men to devalue the attractiveness of average looking women.

25. Gender • Gerbners’ Cultivation Theory has argued that television cultivates stereotyped sex-role attitudes. The theory sees media images molding society by the long-term presentation of relatively uniform versions of social reality. • Morgan contended that television exposure should help to mainstream or homogenize sex-role attitudes. Example: more TV watched the more high school students said they wanted to get married/have children