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Transformations in 19th Century Society: Families, Urbanization, and Social Structures

The 19th century witnessed profound changes in family structures, urbanization, and social dynamics. By 1850, romantic love emerged as a primary reason for marriage, with increased emphasis on fidelity and separate roles for husbands and wives. Child-rearing practices evolved, particularly in middle-class families, where emotional involvement increased. Urbanization led to population growth and improved public health, while the expansion of industry created a diverse social structure. The period also saw significant migration trends and the rise of the middle class as an influential societal group.

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Transformations in 19th Century Society: Families, Urbanization, and Social Structures

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  1. 19th century society

  2. CHANGING FAMILY • Romantic love became the most important reason for marriage by 1850 • Middle class females monitored extremely close by parents • High rate of illegitimacy decreased after 1850 • Fidelity in marriage especially emphasized • After 1850 work of most wives was increasingly separate from work of husbands

  3. CHILD REARING IN MIDDLE CLASS FAMILIES • Lower mortality rates for children resulted in parents becoming more emotionally involved in children’s lives • Married couples had decreased number of children • Increase in books on child rearing • Parents now much more intent on improving the economic and social condition of their children

  4. CHILD REARING IN WORKING CLASS FAMILIES • Unlike middle-class kids, working class children did not remain economically dependent on their families • Children went to work when they reached adolescence • Working class youths broke away from families easier than middle class

  5. URBANIZATION

  6. URBANIZATION • Population growth • Britain first • Population of Europe increased by 50% between 1870 and 1914 • Better medical knowledge, nutrition and housing were key • Number of children per family fell • Poor living conditions in first half of 19th century

  7. PUBLIC HEALTH MOVEMENT • Sought to remedy the high disease and mortality rate • Edwin Chadwick – influenced by Bentham’s utilitarianism (greatest good for the greatest number) • Disease and death as primary causes of poverty • “Sanitary idea” - prevent disease by cleaning up environment • By 1860s and 1870s many European cities had made significant progress in public sanitation

  8. URBAN PLANNING & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION • France took lead during Napoleon III • Paris redeveloped • New aqueducts – doubled fresh water supply, 400 miles of underground sewers built • Other cities followed Paris’ lead • Mass transportation • 1890s – electric streetcar had revolutionized transportation • By 1900 only 9% of Britain’s urban population was overcrowded

  9. MIGRATION AND EMMIGRATION • Significant migration to cities from the countryside continued • Huge numbers of southern and eastern Europeans migrated to America’s largest cities after 1880

  10. CHANGING SOCIAL STRUCTURE • Social structure changed as a result of the industrial revolution and urbanization • Increased standard of living occurred by the 2nd half of the 19th century • Gap between wealthy and working class still huge • “golden age of the middle class” • In Britain, wages and consumption increased 50% between 1820 – 1850

  11. EXPANSION OF INDUSTRY AND TECHNOLOGY • Created growing demand for experts with specialized knowledge • Professionals: engineering, architecture, chemistry, accounting and surveying • Managers: management of large public and private institutions • Expanded and diversified the lower middle class

  12. URBAN DEVELOPMENT • Industrial and urban development made society more diverse and less unified • Diversity within the middle class/bourgeoisie • Upper-middle class • Diversified middle class • Lower-middle class • Grew from 7%-20% in 1900 • Increased women in workforce

  13. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MIDDLE CLASS • Believed strongly in classical liberalism • Gained political influence • Emphasized individual liberty and respectability based on economic success • Families emphasized frugality and planning for the future • Family as foundation of the social order • Education and religion were seen as extremely important

  14. WORKING CLASS • About 80% of the population • Many peasants and hired hands • Less unified and homogenous as compared to middle class • Highly skilled workers at top – “labor aristocracy” • Semi-skilled workers • Unskilled workers and domestic servants at bottom

  15. THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC

  16. THE PARIS COMMUNE 1870-1871 • In 1870, Napoleon III’s Second Empire collapsed when it was defeated by Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War • New National Assembly was created • Paris Commune (radical communist government) laid siege to Paris • From March to May 1871, the Paris Commune fought a bloody struggle with the troops of the National Assembly • Paris Commune defeated – led to recovery of France

  17. The Communards

  18. Paris City Hall Destroyed

  19. First Communist Revolution? It served as an inspiration to later revolutionaries like Vladimir Lenin. • 25,000 Communards killed. • 35,000 were arrested.

  20. Communard Casualties

  21. THE THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC • Established in 1875 • Largely dominated by the bourgeoisie • Constitution provided for a republic • Reforms • Trade unions fully legalized • Jules Ferry: established secular education and reform • Government fell dozens of times • Challenge to government came from the right (conservatives)

  22. Declaring the3rd French Republic

  23. BOULANGER CRISIS • 1887-1889 • George Boulanger gained support of the military • Plotted a coup to overthrow the Republic • Republic summoned Boulanger to trial; fled to Belgium and committed suicide • Increased public confidence in the Republic

  24. The Boulanger Affair

  25. The Dreyfus Affair • In 1894 a list of French military documents [called a bordereau] were found in the waste basket of the German Embassy in Paris. • French counter-intelligence suspected Captain Alfred Dreyfus, from a wealthy Alsatian Jewish family  he was one of the few Jews on the General Staff.

  26. DREYFUS AFFAIR • 1894 – most serious threat to the Republic • Military falsely accused Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jew, with supplying secrets to the Germans • Monarchists used incident to discredit republicans • Emile Zola – took up Dreyfus’ case and condemned military – J’accuse • Led to an alliance between moderate republicans and socialists • Conservatives and Church were discredited

  27. The Dreyfus Affair • A famous author, Emile Zola, published an open letter called J’Accuse! • He accused the army of a mistrial and cover-up. • The government prosecuted him for libel. • Found him guilty  sentenced to a year in prison.

  28. The Dreyfus Affair • Dreyfus finally got a new trial in 1899. • He was brought back from Devil’s Island white-haired and broken. • Results: • Found guilty again, BUT with extenuating circumstances. • Was given a presidential pardon. • Exonerated completely in 1906. • Served honorably in World War I. • Died in 1935.

  29. GREAT BRITAIN

  30. THE VICTORIAN COMPROMSIE • Both Tories and Whigs had considered the 1832 Reform Bill as the FINAL political reform. • Therefore, the aims of the two political parties seemed indistinguishable. • But, by the 1860s, the middle class and working class had grown  they wanted the franchise expanded! • This era saw the realignment of political parties in the House of Commons: • Tory Party  Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli. • Whig Party  Liberal Party under William Gladstone.

  31. The Two “Great Men” • Benjamin Disraeli, Conservative Prime Minister • 1868 • 1874-1880 • William Gladstone, Liberal Prime Minister • 1868-1874 • 1880-1885 • 1886 • 1892-1894

  32. Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) • A brilliant debater. • Baptized by his father into the Anglican Church. • BUT, he was the first & only Prime Minister of Jewish parentage. • A strong imperialist. • “Greater England”foreignpolicy. • Respected by Queen Victoria.

  33. DISRAELI • Britain saw expanded democracy after 1865 under Disraeli and Gladstone • Disraeli • Argued for aggressive foreign policy, expansion of British Empire and reluctant support of democratic bills • Sybil (1845) – expressed sympathy for working class • Reform Bill of 1867 • Expanded Reform Bill of 1832 • Redistributed seats • Essentially doubled number who could vote but not universal suffrage • Reduced government regulation of trade unions in 1875 • Created government regulation for improved sanitation

  34. The 2nd Reform Bill - 1867

  35. William Gladstone (1809-1898) An active legislator and reformer. Known for his populist speeches. Could be preachy. Queen Victoria couldn’t stand him. Tried to deal with the “Irish Question.” Supported a “Little England”foreign policy.

  36. GLADSTONE • Supported Irish Home Rule, fiscal policy, free trade, and extension of democratic principles • Opposed imperialism • Abolished compulsory Church taxes • Secret ballot – 1872 • Civil service reform – 1870 • Reform Act 1884 • Suffrage to adult males • Two million voters added to franchise • Brought Britain close to universal male suffrage

  37. The Foreign Policy Debate “Little England” Policy “Big England” Policy Disraeli Conservative Party England must be the greatest colonial power. Spend £ on supporting the empire. Gladstone. Liberal Party. England must invest in her own people at home. Try negotiations, rather than costly military solutions.

  38. EXTENDING DEMOCRACY • New groups emerged in 1880s and 1890s seeking to further extend democracy • Women’s suffrage advocates, anti-imperialists, socialists and anti-nationalists • Fabian Society (1833) – advanced form of revisionist Marxism • Independent Labor Party – rapidly became vocal third party • Trade unionists, socialists, those disenfranchised with Conservative and Liberal parties

  39. LIBERAL REFORMS • Parliament Act of 1911 • Most significant political reform during Liberal party rule • Eliminated House of Lords; House of Commons was now the center of national power • Life span of Parliament reduced from 7 to 5 years • Foundations for social welfare state created in decade before WWI • Representation of the People Act (1918)

  40. THE IRISH QUESTION • Young Ireland Movement (1848) – echoed nationalistic movements on the continent • most serious problem from 1890 – 1914 • Gladstone pushed unsuccessfully for Irish Home Rule • MAIN ISSUES: absentee landlords, mandatory Anglican tithes • Gladstone improved conditions somewhat

  41. ULSTER • Protestant counties in northern Ireland • Opposed home rule as they started to enjoy economic growth from mid 1890s • Ulsterites raised 100,000 armed volunteers by 1913 • Supported by British public opinion • 1914 – Irish Home Rule Act passed by Commons and Lords; Protestants did not accept it

  42. EASTER REBELLION • 1916 • For independence – crushed by British troops • Catholic Eire (Ireland) received dominion status and Ulster (Northern Ireland) remained in United Kingdom • Large, discontented Catholic minority

  43. Home Rule for Ireland?? Gladstone debates Home Rule in Commons.

  44. GERMAN EMPIRE 1871-1914

  45. GERMAN EMPIRE • Federal union of Prussia and 24 smaller German states • Kaiser William I – ultimate power in Germany • Otto von Bismarck – served as chancellor for 20 years; mastermind behind the government • Reichstag – bicameral legislature • Bundestag – lower body, represented the nation • Bundesrat – conservative upper body, represented various German states

  46. GERMAN POLITICAL SYSTEM • Conservatives represented the junkers of Prussia • Center Catholic Party – approved of Bismarck’s policy of centralization yet advocated regional priorities • Social Democratic Party (S.D.P.) – Marxist, advocated sweeping change • German middle class largely left out of politics • Bismarck saw Center Catholic Party and S.D.P. as major threats to imperial power – sought to destroy them

  47. GERMAN EMPIRE • Bismarck established an integrated political and economic structure for Germany • Unified Germany’s monetary system • Established Imperial bank • Developed universal German civil and criminal codes • Established compulsory military service

  48. KULTURKAMPF • Struggle for civilization • Bismarck sought to limit the influence of the Catholic Center Party • In response to Pope Pius IX’s declaration of papal infallibility (1870) • Most German states in north were Protestant • Catholic party strong in south • Proved too popular to be driven underground • Bismarck ultimately failed to suppress Catholic Center Party

  49. SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY (S.P.D.) • Marxist views • Advocated sweeping change in Germany • Bismarck instituted a series of reforms to suppress threats from left (socialists) • Protective tariff (1879) • Modern social security laws established • Child labor regulated • Improved working conditions • Despite better standard of living, workers did not leave S.P.D.

  50. WILLIAM II • Opposed Bismarck’s renewed efforts to outlaw the S.D.P. • Forced Bismarck’s retirement – gain support of workers • Ruled for 20 years • Aggressive colonial, diplomatic, and naval path • Democracy growing – Germany soon to face constitutional crisis

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