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MICROPROCESSOR. Basic Microprocessor Systems. The microprocessor was born In 1971 two companies, both in the USA, introduced the world to its future by producing microprocessors .
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Basic MicroprocessorSystems • Themicroprocessorwasborn • In 1971 two companies, both in the USA, introduced the world to itsfuturebyproducingmicroprocessors. • The microprocessor and its offspring, the microcontroller, wereused in everycountry, everymeans of productionandalmost every home in the world. • There is now hardly a person on theplanet that does not own or know of something that is dependent ononeof thesedevices.
Basic MicroprocessorSystems • Yet curiously, so few people can give any sort ofanswer to the simple question • ‘What is a microprocessor?’ • ‘How does it work?’
System • The word ‘system’ is used to describe any organization or device thatincludesthreefeatures. • A system must have at least one input, one output and must dosomething, i.e. it must contain a process. • Often there are many inputsandoutputs. • Some of the outputs are required and some are wasteproducts.
System • A wide range of different devices meets these simple requirements.Forexample: motor car ?
System • Amotor car will usually require fuel, water for coolingpurposes and a battery to start the engine and provide for the lights andinstruments. • The carprocess theinputs(burn the fuel)and extract the energy toprovide transportation for people and goods. • Theoutputsarethewanted movement and the unwanted pollutants such as gases, heat,watervapourandnoise.
System • In Figure 1.2, we addedelectricity as a required input to start the engine and provide the lightsand the instruments but thereafter the battery is recharged by the engine. • There must, then, be an electrical system at work, as in Figure1.3, so it is quite possible for systems to have smaller systems inside orembeddedwithinthem.
A microprocessorsystem • Like any other system, a microprocessor has inputs, outputs and aprocess. • The inputs and outputs of amicroprocessor are a series of voltages that can be used to controlexternaldevices. • The process involves analysing the input voltagesand using them to ‘decide’ on the required output voltages. • Thedecision is based on previously entered instructions that are followedquite blindly, sensible or not.
A microprocessorsystem • A microprocessor is a very small electronic circuit typically 1⁄2 inch (12 mm) across. • It is easily damaged by moisture or abrasion so to offerit some protection it isencapsulated in plastic or ceramic. • Toprovideelectrical connections directly to the circuit would be impracticalbecause of the size andconsequentfragility, Thusconnectingpinsaremoulded into the case and themicroprocessor then plugs into a socketon the main circuit board. • The size, shape and number of pins on themicroprocessor depend on the amount of data that it is designed tohandle.
Terminology • Integratedcircuits • An electronic circuit fabricated out of a solid block of semiconductormaterial. This design of circuit, often called a solid state circuit, allowsfor very complex circuits to be constructed in a small volume. Anintegrated circuit is also called a ‘chip’. • Microprocessor(p) • This is the device that you buy: just an integrated circuit as in Figure 1.6.On its own, without a surrounding circuit and applied voltages it is quiteuseless. It will just lie on your workbench staring back at you.
Terminology • Microprocessor-basedsystem • This is any system that contains a microprocessor. • Does not necessarily have anything to do with computing. • Computersuse only a small proportion of all the microprocessorsmanufactured. • Garagedooropeningsystem is a microprocessor-based system or is sometimes called a microprocessorcontrolledsystem. • Microcomputer • The particular microprocessor-based systems that happen to be usedas a computer are called microcomputers.
Terminology • Microcontroller • This is a complete microprocessor-based control system built onto asinglechip. • MPU andCPU • An MPU is a MicroProcessorUnitormicroprocessor. • A CPU is a Central ProcessingUnit. • MPU is thething • CPU is thejob.
Binary – thewaymicroscount • Microprocessorshave not grown up with the idea that 10 isa convenient number of digits to use. • Microprocessors and other digital circuits use only two digits – 0 and 1 but why? • Whatwewoldwantfrom a microprocessor. • To do everythingat infinitespeed • Nevermake a mistake • Whichwould you feel is the more important?
TheNoise Problem • Assumethattheinput of a microprocessor is held a constantvoltagesuch as 4.V • Carefulmeasurementswouldshowthatthevoltage is not goingto be constantvalue but is goingtocontinuouslywanderingaboveandbelowthemeanlevel.
TheNoise Problem • Wearecallingthis as noise. • Forexample. Whenweremovetheantenna of ourtelevisionThenoisecausesrandomspeckles on the screen which we call snow.
TheNoise Problem • Most microprocessors use a power supply of 5 V or 3.3V. To keep thearithmetic easy, we will assume a 5 V system. • If we are going to persuade the microproces- sorto count from 0 to 9,as we do, using voltages available on a 5 V supply would give 0.5Vperdigit:
TheNoise Problem • If we were to instruct our microprocessor to perform the task 4 + 4= 8, by pressing the ‘4’ key we could generate a 2 V signal which isthen remembered by the microprocessor. The + key would tell it toadd and pressing the ‘4’ key again would then generate another 2Vsignal. • If we were to instruct our microprocessor to perform the task 4 + 4= 8, by pressing the ‘4’ key we could generate a 2 V signal which isthen remembered by the microprocessor. The + key would tell it toadd and pressing the ‘4’ key again would then generate another 2Vsignal.
TheNoise Problem • This seemed to work nicely.But what is goingto be happenifthere is a noise.
TheNoise Problem • The exact voltage memorized by themicroprocessor would be a matter of chance. • The first time we pressedkey 4, the voltage just happened to be at 1.5 V but the second time wewere luckier and the voltage was at the correct value of 2V. • Inside themicroprocessor: 1.5 V + 2V = 3.5V • and using the table, the 3.5 V is then converted to the number 7. So ourmicroprocessor reckons that 4 + 4 = 7.5!
A Complete CureForElectricalNoise • Thesmallparticle-likecomponentsof electricity, called electrons, vibrate in a random fashionpowered by the surrounding heat energy. • The overall effect of the electron mobility is similar to the randomsurges that occur in a large crowd of people jostling around waiting toenter the stadium for the Big Match. • If, at a particular time, therehappens to be more electrons or negative charges moving towards theleft-hand end of a piece of material then that end would become moreNegative. • A moment later, the opposite resultmay occur and the end would become more positive.These effects give rise to small random voltages in any conductor.
NoiseTypes • Thermalnoise • The higher the temperature, the more mobile the electrons, the greaterthe random voltages and the more electrical noise is present. • A solution: • High temperature = highnoise • so: • Lowtemperature = lownoise. • Put the whole system into a very cold environment by dropping it inliquid nitrogen (about –200°C) or taking it into space where the‘shade’ temperature is about –269°C. • But On Earth most microprocessors operate at roomtemperature. It would be inconvenient, not to mention expensive, tosurround all our microprocessor circuits by liquid nitrogen.
NoiseTypes • Partitionnoise • Return Thinksthatthere is a biggameandpeopleshouldpass through the two entrances. • Someone will have trouble finding their ticket; • friends will wait for each other; • cash will be offered instead of a ticket; • someone will try to get back out through the gate to reach anothersectionof thestadium. • As we can imagine, thepeopleenterance can be equalforfewhours but afterbyafterrandomfluctuationswilloccur. • Electrons don’t lose their tickets but random effects like temperature,voltage and interactions between adjacent electrons have a verysimilareffect.
NoiseTypes • A single current of, say, 1 A can be split into two currents of 0.5 A whenmeasured over the long-term, but when examined carefully, each willcontain random fluctuations. This type of electrical noise is calledpartition noise or partition effect. The overall effect is similar to thethermal noise and, between them, would cause too much noise andhence would rule out the use of a 10-digit system.
How Much Noise Can We Put Up With? • Thefirstexamplethatwegave is an axamplefor 10 finger (decimal) system . • A 10-digit counting system was separated by 0.5 V • Question: Using a 5 V supply and a denary system, what is the highestnoise voltage that can be tolerated? • Answer: Each digit is separated by only 5 V/10 = 0.5V. • An issueexample • The number 6 for example would have a value of 3 V and the number7 would be represented by 3.5V. If the noise voltage were to increasethe 3 V to over 3.25V, the number is likely to be misread as 7. Thehighest acceptable noise level would therefore be 0.25V.
Whyweare not solvingthis problem byincreasingthevoltage? • The higher the supply voltage the less likely it is that electricalnoise would be a problem. This is true but the effect of increasing thesupply would be to require thicker insulation and would increase thephysical size of the microprocessor and reduce its speed.
SO? How we can solvetheseproblems? • Can Using justtwodigitssolvethis problem • If we reduce the number of digits then a wider voltage range can beused for each value and the errors due to noise are likely to occur lessoften. • We have chosen to use only two digits, 0 and 1, to provide themaximum degree of reliability. A further improvement is to provide asafety zone between each voltage.
