Unveiling the Scientific Method: A Journey from Birth to Postmodernism

1. The “Scientific Method” Malcolm Crowe 15 March 2004

2. Why? • MSc should “demonstrate sustained rational argument” • “Scientific method” is a frequently cited model for rational argument • Really a style of discourse • Famous and still controversial • This lecture will give some history • And present conventions 2000+

3. References • Gjertsen, D: Science and Philosophy (Penguin 1989) • Whewell, W (1840): Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences (Thoemmes 1999) • Feyerabend, P (1975): Against method (Verso 1988)

4. Scientific Method Birth to Death • The likely story (Plato, 360BC) • Hypothesis (Bacon 1620, Descartes 1644) • Reid (1785) Explanation not enough • Hypothetico-deductive (Whewell 1840) • Modernism (Popper 1934) • Failure of modernism: • Scientific diversity (marine biology, strings) • Mathematics collapses (Russell 1902) • The Bohr-Einstein debate (1948) • Postmodernism (Rorty 1981)

5. Induction and Deduction • Aristotle (330 BC) dialectics .. induction and deduction • deduction from premises to results • induction to find premises (but how?) • Great scientific disasters: Lavoisier (1789), Kelvin • eliminative induction (Bacon 1605) • resolution and composition (Mill 1843) • complex methods did not help much • blind application of induction fails

6. Hypothetico-Deductive Method • Plato (Timaeus) look for a likely story • with observed state a natural outcome • F Bacon (1620) scientific approach • “places all wits .. nearly on a level” • though techniques may require mastery • science advances by rational argument • Descartes (1644) hypothesis: • story that explains many observations • Whewell (1840) requires prediction • and some luck: results must be new • Einstein (1915) Theory of Relativity

7. Scientific Theories • are systems of hypotheses • satisfying set of causal explanations • need revision if predictions fail • Popper (1934) “falsification” • incorrect appeal to mathematical logic • theories are not disproved • but qualified by more successful ones • sometimes facts are discarded too

8. Postmodernism • Postmodernism suspicious of • grand narratives, universal methods • absolute realities or objective truths • So just present your ideas rationally • obey normal conventions of subject • don’t fudge the data too much • don’t block the line of inquiry • Importance of academic community • What community are you writing for? • Rorty (1991) solidarity

9. Practice today • Convincing investigation • Hypotheses from anywhere • similarity to previous successful ones • should account for existing data • Should make usable predictions • look for better hypotheses if not • At least write it up this way round • even if you got the data first • critics say that cheating is necessary

10. Objectivity • Rorty (1980) merely a compliment • no method of absolute truth • Try to avoid personal opinion • offer a road anyone can follow • experiments in principle repeatable • arguments acceptable in community • Kierkegaard (1840) Focus on results • subjective writing focuses on process

11. Project Guidelines • Use hypothetico-deductive method • requires no justification • will please examiners • In qualitative research use questions • Recall or make use of prior work • hypothesis/questions should use this • Conclusions should hint at prediction

12. Questions to ask yourself • Have I covered all the angles? • Why these particular examples? • Why these interviewees? • Are all the suspects included? • Is this induction or deduction? • How could my hypothesis be disproved?