“Social Influence” Chapter 7

1. “Social Influence” Chapter 7 How do group members influence one another’s opinions?

2. Overview • Group Polarization • Risky Shift • Cautious Shift • General Social Influence Theories • No Social Influence (social decision schemes) • Opinion Expression (social comparison) • New Information (persuasive arguments) • Opinion Expression and New Information • Structurational Theory (group discussion) • The Valence Model • Universal Social Influence Theory • Threshold Levels • General Propositions & Conclusions

3. Critical Background Information • Focus shifts from group structure (e.g., power, conformity & deviance) to process (social influence and group interaction). • Natural (bona fide) groups vs. contrived (zero history) groups • Effects of Social Influence – how do individual opinions somehow become “transformed” into one group decision?

4. Social Influence Defined • Social influence is the process by which group members influence one another’s opinions. • Researchers posit that the process of social influence is part of the overall process that a group uses to “formulate” a decision based on the members’ opinions. • Choice dilemmas involve two options: • Attractive Outcome – only some probability of success (“risky” choice). • Less Attractive Outcome – will definitely succeed (safe or “cautious” choice).

5. Group Polarization • Prediscussional Opinions impact on Possible Outcomes (Decisions) • All members have the same opinion. • Some group members tend toward risk and some tend toward caution. • All group members are on one side, either risk or caution. • Risky Shift – eventual decision is riskier than the mathematical average would predict. • Cautious Shift – when groups make more cautious decisions than individuals.

6. Risky Shifts Explained • Diffusion of Responsibility • Don’t worry about possible negative consequences because group can diffuse responsibility for the decision. • Familiarization • Anxiety about possible consequences of a risky decision decreases as people become familiar with choice dilemma. • Leadership Theories • Focus is on how specific members influence groups (power, conformity, deviance) • Value Theory • Individuals take more chances in the presence of others than they would take alone.

7. Group Polarization • Are group decisions usually more extreme than the individual members’ prediscussion judgments? • The study of group polarization can lead to a general theory of social influence in groups. • Choice dilemmas help scholars examine and theorize about group polarization, and group polarization helps them look at social influence.

8. General Social Influence Theories • No Social Influence (social decision schemes) • Opinion Expression (social comparison) • New Information (persuasive arguments) • Opinion Expression and New Information • Structurational Theory (group discussion)

9. #1 - Group Decisions WITHOUT Social Influence • Social influence is NOT important in group decision making. • Groups come to their decisions by combining prediscussional opinions. • Conclusions are based solely on an arithmetic average. • SOCIAL DECISION SCHEMES – rules that groups use to combine individual members’ decisions into a group decision • “Majority Model” • NOT a good explanation of the process by which groups make decisions!

10. #2 - Social Influence from Opinion Expression • Social influence happens when group members listen to one another express opinions about the available options. • Social influence occurs because people want to agree with the majority. • Learning about other people’s opinions is enough to bring about social influence. • Deliberation is important. • Social comparison approach – valence of risk • Viable – but INCOMPLETE (does not explain WHY the group polarization effect occurs.

11. #3 – Social Influence From New Information • Social influence is important in the decision-making process. • Group members talk about their opinions during meetings and establish advantages and disadvantages of each option. • Group uses the members’ new opinions to help it decide on the best option. • Group members REQUIRE new information before social influence can occur. • Persuasive Arguments Approach • “Hidden Profile Effect” – risky arguments remain hidden.

12. #4 – Social Influence from Opinion Expression AND New Information • Combined Social Comparison / Persuasive Arguments • BOTH opinion expression and new information can affect the opinions of group members. • Social influence is a result of two aspects of group interaction: • Social comparison process that leads to biased group discussion. • New (but often biased) information that group members learn from one another when they discuss the options. • What members think BEFORE group discussion is important—early opinions and arguments predict a group’s decision. • Input-Process-Output Model of Group Discussion • Social comparison theory combines with persuasive arguments theory to account for group polarization. • Good SUPPORTING EVIDENCE to Support Proposal • Ability to explain social influence in general.

13. #5 – Social Influence from GROUP DISCUSSION • Group discussion itself has a larger role in the influence process • Structurational Theory • When people come into groups they already have opinions about what they like best. • What HAPPENS during group discussion is of utmost importance. • Members’ initial opinions may relate only slightly to their final opinions. • FOCUS on CONTENT of group discussion (not on prediscussional opinions) to predict outcomes • Cannot explain why participants bring up new arguments any better than persuasive arguments theory. • Should group discussion be given such a large role in the social influence process?

14. The Valence Model • All proposals in groups have levels of acceptability, which group discussion both governs and reflects. • Positive and Negative Evaluations of Ideas • “Thresholds of Acceptability”

15. Social Influence Conclusions • No single theory about group polarization is absolutely successful. • Valid theories regarding group decision making must account for two (2) propositions: • Individual opinions are most important ; group decisions are primarily a result of the opinions of group members. • Individual opinions CHANGE as a result of group discussion (social learning).

16. Summary • Group Polarization • Risky Shift • Cautious Shift • General Social Influence Theories • No Social Influence (social decision schemes) • Opinion Expression (social comparison) • New Information (persuasive arguments) • Opinion Expression and New Information • Structurational Theory (group discussion) • The Valence Model • Universal Social Influence Theory • Threshold Levels • General Propositions & Conclusions

17. Coming Soon… • GROUP DECISION MAKING • The study of GROUP PROCESS • GROUP STRUCTURE