The representation of time and space across historical discourse Sara Radighieri and Marc Silver ( University of Moden

1. The representation of time and space across historical discourse Sara Radighieri and Marc Silver (University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy)

2. Larger Research Project • Contrastively analyze linguistic elements and sequences characterizing temporal and spatial forms of representation in areas nominally considered as “History” • Explore how these forms offer insight into the different strategies assumed by writers in constructing disciplinary discourse

3. Larger Research Project (2) Focuses essentially on: • Projecting verbs (e.g. suppose, imagine) • if … then constructions • Expressions imposing comparison (e.g. similar to, akin to, analogous to) • ‘Transitional’ patterns  Prep. + THE + N + OF with/out Chrononym …

4. STATEMENT OF PURPOSE • Our paper focuses primarily on the forms and functions of the projecting verbs SUPPOSE and IMAGINE when analyzed across Art History and (other more mainstream forms of) History. • We are particularly interested in how these verbs behave in developing writer argumentational strategy with respect to temporal and spatial forms of representation.

5. Materials (Corpora) Art History • AH844,6862001-2003 77 • JAAC 641,2152001-2003 73 TOTAL ARTICLES tokens 1,485,901 150 Art History, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism History • AHR 337,9131999-2000 30 • HR 267,900 1999-2000 39 • JoMH292,747 1999-2000 42 • JoSH110,5901999-2000 14 • LHR 127,688 1999-2000 17 • HoEI170,267 1999-2000 29 TOTAL ARTICLES tokens 1,307,105 171 American Historical Review, Historical Research,Journal of Medieval History, Journal of Social History, Labour History Review,History of European Ideas

6. Methodology • Combining corpus and discourse perspective • Overview of quantitative variation Preliminary analysis of frequency data by means of Wordsmith tools (Scott 1996) • Qualitative concordance analysis with a view to • lexico-grammatical(syntactic) distinctions • pragmatic distinctions • textual distinctions

7. Focus on suppose* and imagine* Qui-squared test: p < 0,0001 Log-likelihood: p < 0,0001

8. Focus on suppose*

9. Focus on imagine*

10. lexico-grammatical(syntactic) distinctions (1) Grammatical subjects • 1st person sing/plur pronouns (I, We) •  (imperative) • 2nd person sing/plur pronouns (You) • ‘empty subjects’ (there, it) • impersonal (one, people) • 3rd person sing/plur pronouns , others (NAMEs, s/he, they)

11. Syntactic data on suppose and imagine

12. lexico-grammatical(syntactic) distinctions (2) Pattern grammar • IMAGINE*/SUPPOSE* + NP (or else) • IMAGINE*/SUPPOSE* + THAT • IMAGINE*/SUPPOSE* + V-ING • IMAGINE*/SUPPOSE* [end of sentence] • IMAGINE*/SUPPOSE* + other elements

13. Syntactic patterns

14. A few examples of the semantic effects of lexico-grammatical choices: • The death rate was relatively high; and people were moving away, and moving away in some numbers. It would be tempting to suppose that the population was failing to replace itself. Such an impression would, however, be misleading. It needs to be remembered that… (H) • It is tempting but wrong to suppose thatparticipatory art is rare and unfamiliar. Quite the contrary, such artworks are common but are also commonly overlooked in theoretical writing about the arts.(AH) • The use of ‘empty subject’ in the two corpora

15. The use of ‘imperative’ in AH Suppose, in contrast, that she instead found herself invited down to the Isle of Wight, and were caught before Julia Margaret Cameron’s camera. Now only her head is shown; she is lost in sepulchral gloom, lit from a single-point source up and to her right; her image is slightly blurred, and she seems to be lost in faraway and despondent reflections, perhaps brought on by reading just a little too much Tennyson.

16. pragmatic distinctions World of Discourse • Wr / Wr° Re / Re° World of Text • Rep. Disc./ Indirect RD  Hist. Actor / Object

17. textual distinctions (1) Textual sequencing: H opens hypothetical world BWr writer ‘intruding’ in other’s discourse to boost his own disciplinary authority

18. textual distinctions (2) Spatial SM metaphoric motion or cognitive shift through the text domain (Smith 2003) Temporal STF shift in temporal frame between the text domain (story time) and discourse domain (discourse time) (Chatman 1978)

19. ART HISTORY - SUPPOSE • It seems that sometimes a reader will recognize an allusion that the author did not intend, consciously or unconsciously. Suppose a poet composes a dark and cerebral piece he entitles “Sea Sick”, and suppose a hypothetical reader takes this title to be an allusion to Sartre’s existential novel La nausée. The poet claims, however, that there is no allusion to La nausée; he did not intend one. As evidence he offers the fact that he never read Sartre’s novel and never even heard of it at the time he composed “Sea Sick”.

20. ART HISTORY - IMAGINE • interesting sense historical. To understand the meanings requires an archeology of how pictures were used to mean when not used simply to denote their resemblata. Let us imagine a Notational Museum, in which all known pictorial systems are exhibited — something like an Alphabet Museum, in which all known alphabets are displayed. The museum will show horses or hawks as drawn by Egyptians, by Chinese, by Hawaiians, by European romantics, by Minoans, etc. My claim is that nonassociative learning will enable us to identify the shapes that differ in whatever way one notional system differs from another. We cannot imagine, for example,

21. HISTORY - SUPPOSE 11 although he had held directorships in a number of small financial concerns, he was not a businessman and had had no commercial experience, least of all in retailing; he was sixty-two years old, he had not held government office for seven years and there was no reason to suppose that he would ever hold office again. It seems likely that senior figures in the Zionist movement must have known something of his background. Conceivably Amery was regarded as valuable because of his relationship to Viscount Greenwood, the honorary treasurer of the

22. HISTORY - IMAGINE 24 The sharing of halls was not unusual, though perhaps not so formal as in Huddersfield where, in 1844, the Chartists reached an arrangement with the Owenites to use the Hall of Science on occasional weekdays and alternate Sundays. One cannotimagine the audiences staying away from lectures on alternate Sundays just because their party was not responsible for that week’s programme at the hall. In Manchester, similarly, despite religious differences, the social missionary, Robert Buchanon, urged union between

23. Differences in sequencing across disciplines can tell us something about disciplinary use (e.g. use of imperative) Although two verbs are different semantically, syntactically and pragmatically they may serve a similar argumentative function and therefore manifest differences across disciplines GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

24. CONCLUSIONSSpatialization and temporalization By means of recurrent lexico-grammatical combinations the writer builds an imagined world, through spatialization writer often opens up a world where hypotheses are used persuasively or imaginary scenes/situations are depicted through temporalizazion world of text and world of discourse can strategically be woven together.

25. CONCLUSIONS History • displaces or shifts narrative (ST to DT or vice versa) creating a temporal effect (e.g. future in the past) • interweaving of narrative and argumentative sequences Art History • verbs often provide for creation of a hypothetical world which invites reader to participate in the depicted situation (‘hypotyposis’) • description merges with exposition and argumentation; simple categorizations are too simplistic

26. Thank you! sara.radighieri@unimore.it silver@unimore.it