Decolonization after World War II III. Middle Eastern Independence

1. Decolonization after World War II III. Middle Eastern Independence A. End of League Mandate System 1. Established after World War I per the League of Nations 2. Ended after World War II per the United Nations a. British mandates abandoned i. Palestine, 1947 ii. Israel, 1947 iii. Jordan, 1946 b. French mandates abandoned i. Syria, 1946 B. Zionism (Israel): Desire to establish a Jewish homeland 1. Supported by British after World War I 2. Inter-war and World War II migration to British mandate of Palestine 3. World War II and Holocaust creates more sympathy 4. Realized in 1947 with UN Partition 5. Zionism as antithesis to Arab nationalism

2. The Creation of Israel, 1948 • On May 14, 1948, David Ben-Gurion, the head of the Jewish Agency, proclaimed the establishment of the State of Israel. U.S. President Harry S. Truman recognized the new nation on the same day. Although the US supported the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which favored the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine, President FDR had assured the Arabs in 1945 that the US would not intervene without consulting both the Jews and the Arabs in that region. The British, who held a colonial mandate for Palestine until May 1948, opposed both the creation of a Jewish state and an Arab state in Palestine as well as unlimited immigration of Jewish refugees to the region. Great Britain wanted to preserve good relations with the Arabs to protect its vital political and economic interests in Palestine... In May 1946, Truman announced his approval of a recommendation to admit 100,000 displaced persons into Palestine and in October publicly declared his support for the creation of a Jewish state.

3. British Mandate of Palestine, 1922-1948

4. Throughout 1947, the UN Special Commission on Palestine recommended the partition of Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state. On November 29, 1947 the UN adopted Resolution 181 (also known as the Partition Resolution) that would divide Great Britain’s former Palestinian mandate into Jewish and Arab states in May 1948 when the British mandate was scheduled to end. Under the resolution, the area of religious significance surrounding Jerusalem would remain a corpus separatum under international control administered by the UN... The State Department [however], concerned about the possibility of an increasing Soviet role in the Arab world and the potential for restriction by Arab oil producing nations of oil supplies to the United States, advised against U.S. intervention on behalf of the Jews… *and+ about the possibility of an all-out war in Palestine as Arab states threatened to attack... Despite *the+ growing conflict… Truman ultimately decided to recognize the state Israel. http://history.state.gov/milestones/1945- 1952/creation-israel

5. UN Partition, 1947 Red – Palestine; Yellow – Israel; Jerusalem - International

6. Israel’s Conquest, 1948-49

7. In 1967, Syria intensified its bombardment of Israeli settlements across the border, and Israel struck back by shooting down six Syrian MiG fighters. After Syria alleged in May 1967 that Israel was massing troops along the border, Egypt demanded the withdrawal of the U.N. from the Israel-Egypt cease-fire lines of the 1956 conflict. The U.N. peacekeepers left on May 19, and three days later Egypt closed the Strait of Tiran to Israeli shipping. On May 30, Jordan signed a mutual-defense treaty with Egypt and other Arab states… With every sign of a pan-Arab attack in the works, Israel launched a preemptive strike. On June 5, the Six-Day War began… By June 8, the Egyptian forces were defeated, and Israel held the Gaza Strip and the Sinai to the Suez Canal. Meanwhile, Jordan began shelling Israel, provoking a rapid response... Israel overran the West Bank and on June 7 captured the Old City of East Jerusalem. The chief chaplain of the Israel Defense Forces blew a ram's horn at the Western Wall to announce the reunification of East Jerusalem with the Israeli-administered western sector. To the north, Israel bombarded Syria's fortified Golan Heights... On June 11, a U.N.-brokered cease-fire took effect, and the Six-Day War was at an end… The U.N. Security Council called for a withdrawal from all the occupied regions, but Israel declined, permanently annexing East Jerusalem and setting up military administrations in the occupied territories… *A major term for Israeli negotiation is the recognition of the nation of Israel, which most Arab nations have refused to do.] Egypt would eventually negotiate and make peace with Israel, and in 1982 the Sinai Peninsula was returned to Egypt in exchange for full diplomatic recognition of Israel. Egypt and Jordan later gave up their respective claims to the Gaza Strip and the West Bank to the Palestinians, who beginning in the 1990s opened "land for peace" talks with Israel. The East Bank territory has since been returned to Jordan. In 2005, Israel left the Gaza Strip. Still, a permanent Israeli-Palestinian peace agreement remains elusive, as does an agreement with Syria to return the Golan Heights.

9. Decolonization after World War II III. Middle Eastern Independence C. Arab Nationalism (Palestine, Egypt) 1. Grew during World War I w/British support 2. Denied after World War I and stalled due to League Mandates 3. Intensifies during Inter-War period due to Mandates 4. Nations seek to protect lands and resources a. Suez Canal, 1956 b. Arab-Muslim/Israeli conflicts over territory (Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip, West Bank, Lebanon) c. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) d. rise of political dictatorships (old Iraq, new Palestine) e. aggression toward other nations (Iraq – Kuwait)

10. There have been many military coups in Asian and African nations. • The military often is one of the few societal groups resistant to ethnic and religious divisions, and it has the near monopoly of force. • Soldiers may have the technical training lacking among civilian leaders. • When military men were anti-Communist, they gained Western assistance. • Once in power, many military men established repressive and corrupt regimes where limited resources were used to protect their authority. • Some leaders attacked neighbors to divert attention from their failures. • A few military men were different and attempted radical reform……..

11. Gamal Nasser, Egyptian leader and nationalist • Gamal Abdul Nasser took power in Egypt in 1952 as part of the Free Officers movement, formed during the 1930s by young nationalistic officers. • They were allied for a long period with another opponent of the regime, the Muslim Brotherhood, founded in 1928 by Hasan al-Banna, a teacher and scholar interested in scientific subjects and independence for Egypt. • He was contemptuous of the wealthy Egyptian and European minority who flourished in the midst of general poverty. • The Muslim Brotherhood was founded to remedy such problems. • Although believers in fundamentalist Islam, its members worked for sweeping reforms. • By the late 1930s, the Brotherhood intervened in politics through strikes, riots, and assassinations. • Although the khedive’s men murdered al-Banna in 1949, the Brotherhood continued to be important. • Egypt’s defeat in the Arab-Israeli War of 1948 and the continuing British occupation of the Suez Canal led to a successful coup in 1952 by the Free Officers. “In these decisive days in the history of mankind, these days in which truth struggles to have itself recognized in international chaos where powers of evil domination and imperialism have prevailed, Egypt stands firmly to preserve her sovereignty. Our country stands solidly and staunchly to preserve her dignity against imperialistic schemes of a number of nations who have uncovered their desires for domination and supremacy.” -Egyptian leader Gamal Nasser’s Speech on the Suez Canal, 1956 - Egyptian leader Gamal Nasser’s Speech on the Suez Canal, 1956

12. Egypt cont. Anwar Sadat • By 1954, all political parties, including the Muslim Brotherhood, • had been disbanded and Nasser’s regime imposed broad social and economic reform. • Land was redistributed to peasants, education became free through college, and government became the main employer. • State subsidies lowered prices of food staples and five-year plans modeled on the Soviet Union were introduced. • Foreign properties were seized or restricted. • Nasser also began an active foreign policy designed to defeat Israel, forge Arab unity, and agitate socialist revolution. • In 1956, he forced the British from the Suez Canal zone. Despite his good intentions, many of Nasser’s reforms failed. • Population growth offset economic advances, and Western capital was not replaced by Egypt’s communist supporters. Failed foreign adventures, including the disastrous Six-Day War with Israel in 1967, added to the regime’s problems. Nasser’s successor, Anwar Sadat, had to end many programs and turn to private initiatives. He came to terms with Israel, expelled the Russians, and opened Egypt to Western assistance. Sadat’s policies have been continued by his successor, Hosni Mubarak. None of the paths followed since 1952 have solved Egypt’s problems. Muslim fundamentalist movements proliferated; one group assassinated Sadat.

13. Decolonization after World War II III. Middle Eastern Independence D. Islamic fundamentalism (Iran) 1. American interest in Iran since 1950s 2. American support of Shah Pahlavi 3. American oust of communist threats, 1950s 4. Pro-Western, pro-modern Iran as trade partner w/USA until 1979 5. Iranian Revolution, 1979 sought instill fundamental Islamic values 6. Islamic Republic of Iran still in place today 7. Extremely anti-American and anti-Western

14. Ayatollah Khomeini, leader of Iranian Revolution

15. VII 1979 Iranian Revolution A) In 1941, British and Soviet troops occupied Iran, and the Shah (the leader of Iran since 1941) was forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Mohammad Reza. However, in the early 1950s, the Shah was eclipsed by Mohammad Mosaddeq, an Iranian nationalist who convinced the Parliament to nationalize Britain's extensive oil interests in Iran. Reza, who maintained close relations with Britain and the US, opposed the decision. In 1953, Mohammad Reza attempted to dismiss Mosaddeq, but the premier's popular support was so great that the Shah (Reza) was forced out of Iran. B) A few days later, British and US agents orchestrated a coup d'etat against Mosaddeq, and the Shah returned to take power as the sole leader of Iran. He became a close Cold War ally of the US in Southwest Asia (the Middle East). C) In 1963, the Shah launched his "White Revolution" that included land reform, infrastructure development, voting rights for women, and education. Although these programs were applauded by many in Iran,

16. 1979 Iranian Revolution Continued… Islamic leaders were critical of what they saw as the westernization of Iran. D) Ruhollah Khomeini, a Shiite cleric, wanted to overthrow the Shah, rid Iran of “Western” influences, and establish an Islamic state. In 1964, Khomeini was exiled and settled across the border in Iraq, where he sent radio messages to incite his supporters. E) The Shah saw himself as a Persian king and in 1971 held an extravagant celebration of the 2,500th anniversary of the pre-Islamic Persian monarchy. Religious discontent grew, and the shah became more repressive, using his brutal secret police force to suppress opposition. This alienated students and intellectuals in Iran, and support for Khomeini grew. Discontent was also rampant in the poor and middle classes, who felt that the economic developments of the White Revolution had only benefited the ruling elite.

17. 1979 Iranian Revolution Continued… F) In 1978, anti-Shah demonstrations broke out in Iran's major cities. On Sept 8, 1978, the Shah's security force fired on a large group of demonstrators, killing hundreds. Khomeini called for the Shah's immediate overthrow, and on Dec 11 a group of soldiers mutinied and attacked the Shah's security officers; the Shah fled, eventually entering the US in Oct 1979 for medical treatment of his cancer. G) On Nov 4 1978, in Tehran, Islamic militants responded by storming the US embassy and taking the staff hostage. With the approval of Khomeini, the militants demanded the return of the Shah to Iran to stand trial for his crimes. The United States refused to negotiate, and 52 American hostages were held for 444 days. Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi died in Egypt in July 1980.

18. Imam Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini Mohammad Reza Pahlavi

19. Iranian Hostage Crisis “On Nov 4, 1979, a group of Iranian students stormed the U.S. Embassy in Tehran, taking more than 60 American hostages. The immediate cause of this action was President Jimmy Carter’s decision to allow Iran’s deposed Shah, a pro-Western autocrat, to come to the US for cancer treatment… it was also a dramatic way for the student revolutionaries to declare a break with Iran’s past and an end to American interference in its affairs, and to raise the profile of the revolution’s leader, the anti-American cleric Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. The students set their hostages free on January 21, 1981, 444 days after the crisis began and just hours after President Ronald Reagan delivered his inaugural address. Many historians believe that hostage crisis cost Jimmy Carter a second term as president.” www.history.com

20. VIII Iran Iraq War 1980 - 1988 A) The Iran – Iraq War began on Sept. 22, 1980. The causes of the war lay in a number of territorial and political disputes between Iraq and Iran. Iraq wanted to seize control of the rich oil-producing Iranian border region of Khuzestan, a territory inhabited largely by ethnic Arabs. Iraqi president Saddam Hussein wanted to reassert his country’s sovereignty over both banks of the Shaṭṭ al-ʿArab, a river formed by the flowing together of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers that was historically the border between the two countries. Saddam was also concerned over attempts by Iran’s Islamic revolutionary government to incite rebellion among Iraq’s Shiite majority. B) The fighting ended in 1988 with a cease-fire, but the withdrawal of troops did not take place until the signing of a formal peace agreement on Aug. 16, 1990. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293527/Iran-Iraq-War

21. Iran Iraq War 1980 – 1988 Continued…

22. IX The Iran – Contra Affair 1986 - 1987 “The Iran-contra affair consisted of 3 interconnected parts: The Reagan administration sold arms to Iran, a country desperate for arms during its war with Iraq; in exchange for the arms, Iran was to use its influence to help gain the release of Americans held hostage in Lebanon; and the arms were purchased at high prices, with the excess profits diverted to fund the Reagan-favored "contras" fighting the Sandinista government in Nicaragua. It was a grand scheme that violated American law and policy all around: Arms sales to Iran were prohibited; the U.S. government had long forbidden ransom of any sort for hostages; and it was illegal to fund the contras above the limits set by Congress. The first press revelations occurred in Nov 1986, and were followed by 3 investigations, and finally by a federal prosecutor, eventually resulting in the convictions of several members of the Reagan administration. Reagan himself was never charged with any offense, although opinions differed about his knowledge of, and culpability for, the affair.” http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpsrv/politics/special/clinton/frenzy/iran.htm

23. The Iran – Contra Affair Continued… Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North of the National Security Council admitted to diverting funds from arms sales to Iran to the Contras, with the full knowledge of NSA Adviser Admiral John Poindexter and of President Reagan. Poindexter resigned, and North was fired. In Nov 1986, Reagan went on TV and denied that any such operation had occurred. He retracted the statement a week later, insisting that the sale of weapons had not been an arms-for-hostages deal. Polls showed that only 14 percent of Americans believed the president when he said he had not traded arms for hostages.

24. The Iran – Contra Affair Continued… Eugene H. Hasenfus is a US citizen who was alleged by Nicaragua Sandinista authorities to be employed by the U.S. CIA, after the aircraft he was aboard crashed on Nicaraguan soil. The photo above shows Sandinista soldiers holding Eugene Hasenfus captive after his cargo plane was shot down while delivering supplies to the Contras in October 1986.

26. Khmer Rouge Massacre 1975 - 1978 “Powered by the Vietnamese, the Cambodian communist movement was created to fight against French colonization during decade of 1940s. In 1960, twenty one politicians formed Kampuchean (or Khmer) People's Revolutionary Party (KPRP). The Khmer Rouge, organized by Pol Pot in the Cambodian jungle in the 1960s, advocated a radical Communist revolution that would wipe out Western influences in Cambodia and set up a solely agrarian society. In 1970, aided by North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops, Khmer Rouge guerrillas began a large-scale insurgency against Cambodian government forces... By 1973, secret U.S. bombings of Cambodian territory controlled by the Vietnamese Communists forced the Vietnamese out of the country, creating a power vacuum... In April 1975, the Khmer Rouge captured Phnom Penh, the Cambodian capital, overthrew the pro-U.S. regime, and established a new government, the Kampuchean People's Republic. As the new ruler of Cambodia, Pol Pot set about transforming the country into his vision of an agrarian utopia. The cities were evacuated, factories and schools were closed, and currency and private property was abolished. Anyone believed to be an intellectual, such as someone who spoke a foreign language, was immediately killed. Skilled workers were also killed, in addition to anyone caught in possession of eyeglasses, a wristwatch, or any other modern technology. In forced marches punctuated with atrocities from the Khmer Rouge, the millions who failed to escape Cambodia were herded onto rural collective farms. Between 1975 and 1978, an estimated two million Cambodians died by execution, forced labor, and famine.

27. In 1978, Vietnamese troops invaded Cambodia, capturing Phnom Penh in early 1979. A moderate Communist government was established, and Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge retreated back into the jungle. In 1985, Pol Pot officially retired but remained the effective head of the Khmer Rouge, which continued its guerrilla actions against the government in Phnom Penh. In 1997, however, he was put on trial by the organization after an internal power struggle ousted him from his leadership position. Sentenced to life imprisonment by a "people's tribunal," which critics derided as a show trial, Pol Pot later declared in an interview, "My conscience is clear.“… he died of apparently natural causes while under house arrest in 1998.” http://www.cambodia.org/khmer_rouge/

28. Cambodian refugee children, who fled with their families after Khmer Rouge raids, wait for food at a relief organization's station northwest of Phnom Penh ... Pol Pot

29. Comparison of Emerging Nations • This chapter focuses on many of the common problems faced by newly independent nations in Asia, the Middle East, and Africa in the final decades of the 20th century. But despite these common issues, it is important to distinguish particular patterns in the late 20th century, some of which reflected older traditions in key civilizations. India’s success in maintaining democracy is related to earlier traditions of considerable decentralization showed in the federal system of the huge democracy. In the Middle East important tensions continued between secular and religious leaders which is linked to earlier traditions. And many African nations combined older beliefs and artistic styles with their new religions. Furthermore in some African nations, emphasis on power authoritarian rulers reflected not only the tensions of new nationhood, but an earlier tradition of “Big Man” rule.

30. Global Connections: Postcolonial Nations in the Cold War Order • The years of independence for the nations that emerged from the colonial empires in Asia, the Middle East, and Africa have been filled with political and economic crises and social turmoil between tradition and change.

31. Evaluate whether the problems in newly independent Asian and African nations were thecreation of imperialism or the result of indigenous factors • Certain problems clearly were associated with imperialism: lack of industrialization; dependence on the sale of cash food products, minerals, and raw materials; continued economic dependency within the global trade network; cultural intrusions; artificial boundaries throwing together different ethnic and religious groups. Among indigenous problems the greatest probably is overpopulation, its effects magnified by a lack of an industrial sector to provide employment. Other indigenous problems are repressive military regimes, political corruption, and failure to distribute benefits to the majority.

32. Compare the political, social, and economic development of Asian and African countriesafter independence with the countries of Latin America • Each region demonstrated a variety of responses to independence: failure of nationalist governments, establishment of one-party government, military regimes, and charismatic populist governments. Latin America did not have a successful fundamentalist revolt similar to that of Iran. Continuing revolutions were common in all regions. Latin America has a different social hierarchy than elsewhere based on color and ethnic background. South Africa had a system where a white minority ruled and discriminated against a black African majority. Many of the regions had a significant underclass. In economics, all regions had difficulties in overcoming the disadvantages of an absence of industrialization, an inability to shake off economic dependency within the global trade network, the creation of huge cities full of the unemployed, and population growth swallowing any economic gains.

33. Evaluate why the new African and Asian states had such difficulty in establishing nationalidentities. • When nationalist movements began, the leaders made promises of jobs and prosperity. Once in power the new national leaders could not deliver on their promises. When the Utopia failed, rivalries developed that led to destabilized factions.

34. Appraise the reasons for the high population growth rates in new Asian and Africannations. • Population growth proved to be one of the most important barriers to economic advance after independence. Importation of New World food crops had fueled growth, and colonial rule reinforced the trends by combating local war and disease. Modern transportation systems helped to check famine. Population growth continued after independence, especially in Africa. The policies of the colonizers that limited industrial development resulted in few employment opportunities and an inability to produce necessities for rising populations.

35. Most African and Asian nations have been slow to develop birth control programs in their male-dominated societies. Procreation demonstrates male virility, while the wish for male children is critical to female social standing. In Africa, some societies regard children as vital additions to lineage networks. High mortality rates formerly had encouraged families to have many children, a factor persisting when rates declined. Many African and Asian nations have recognized the dangers to their societies and now are running family planning programs.

36. Compare the cities in Asia, Africa, and Latin America with those of the West. • Most cities in Asia, Africa, and Latin America lacked expanding industrial sectors able to utilize the people who were arriving, thus forming the urban underclass. This forced governments to expend valuable resources to keep food and other staples available and cheap. The cities spread without planning and developed vast slums. The result is the creation of parasitic, not productive, cities that diminish national resources by drawing supplies from already impoverished rural regions. The demands upon the latter have caused soil depletion and deforestation that upset fragile tropical ecosystems.

37. Define “neo-colonialism.” • Continued dominance of new nations by their former rulers. This is caused by the new country being forced to seek relationships with former rulers because of economic dependence. The new nation would try to establish an independent economy but because of certain factors, would be forced back into a relationship with the former ruler.

38. Compare Nasser’s military government with other military regimes • Gamal Abdul Nasser took power in the usual manner by building a coalition. Once in power, Nasser eliminated the rivals. This is where he is similar to the other military regimes. Where he differs is in his approach to economic and social reforms. Nasser used his power to force through programs that he believed would uplift the long-suffering Egyptian masses. Nasser believed that only the state could carry out such reforms.

39. Compare post-independence policies in India and Egypt • Indian leaders favored socialism and state intervention for reforming their society, but differed from the Egyptians in important ways. Both nations were overcrowded. Indians have preserved civilian rule since independence. Despite the burden of overpopulation, India differed by possessing at independence a large industrial and scientific sector, a developed communications system, and an important middle class. The early leaders of the Indian National Congress were committed to social reform, economic development, and preservation of democracy and civil rights. Despite a host of problems, India has remained the world’s largest working democracy. Further, India came to independence with better communication networks, bureaucratic systems, and a large skilled and semi-skilled workforce.

40. Summarize the influences that contributed to Islamic fundamentalists gaining power inIran. • The Iranian Revolution directed by Ayatollah Khomeini presented a fundamental challenge to the existing world order. It recalls the religious fervor of the Mahdi’s 19th-century movement in the Sudan by emphasizing religious purification and the rejoining of religion and politics central to early Islam. Both movements called for a return to a golden age and were directed against Western-backed governments. The Mahdi and Khomeini claimed divine inspiration and sought to establish a state based on Islamic precepts. Khomeini succeeded because of circumstances unique to Iran, a nation not formally colonized, but divided into British and Russian spheres of interest. • Modernization policies, supported by Iran’s oil wealth, were imposed by the regime of the Pahlavi shahs. Advances resulted, but the majority of Iranians were alienated. The shah’s authoritarian rule offended the middle class; his ignoring of Islamic conventions roused religious leaders who were influential with the mass of the people. Favoritism to foreign investors and a few Iranian entrepreneurs angered bazaar merchants. Landholders were affronted by incomplete land reform schemes that did not much benefit the rural poor. Urban workers at first secured benefits, but then suffered from an economic slump. The military was neglected. When revolution came in 1978, the shah was without support and left Iran. Khomeini then carried through radical reform. Religious figures took over leadership and suppressed all opposition. Strict implementation of Islamic law began and women’s opportunities were restricted.