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Variations in the Molecules of Cells

This chapter explores the different molecules found in cells, including enzymes, proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids, and their structural variations. It also discusses the importance of functional groups in organic compounds.

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Variations in the Molecules of Cells

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  1. Chapter 3 0 The Molecules of Cells

  2. Model of amilk-digestingenzyme Unnumbered Figure p.32 0

  3. Unnumbered Figure p.33

  4. Space-fillingmodel Structuralformula Ball-and-stickmodel H H H C H C H H H Methane H The 4 single bonds of carbon point to the corners of a tetrahedron. H H H H H C C C C C H H H H H H H H H Ethane Propane Carbon skeletons vary in length. H C H H H H H H H H C C C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H Butane Isobutane Skeletons may be unbranched or branched. H H H H H H H H C C C H H C C C H C C H H H H H 1-Butene 2-Butene Skeletons may have double bonds, which can vary in location. H H H C C H H H H C C C C H H H C C H C C H H C H H C H H H Benzene Cyclohexane Skeletons may be arranged in rings. Figure 3.1 Variations in carbon skeletons

  5. Table 3.2 Functional groups of organic compounds

  6. OH Estradiol HO Female lion OH O Testosterone Figure 3.2 Differences in the functional groups of male and female sex hormones (carbons and their attached hydrogens omitted) Male lion

  7. H H OH OH OH OH H H Short polymer Short polymer Unlinked monomer Unlinked monomer H2O Dehydration reaction Dehydration reaction H H OH OH Longer polymer Longer polymer Figure 3.3A Building a polymer chain

  8. H2O H OH Hydrolysis H OH H OH Figure 3.3B Breaking a polymer chain

  9. Figure 3.4A Bees with honey, a mixture of two monosaccharides

  10. H O H H C OH C H OH C C O HO C H C HO H H OH C C H OH H OH C C OH H C H OH C H OH H H Glucose Fructose Figure 3.4B Structures of glucose and fructose

  11. CH2OH 6 CH2OH C O 5 H O O H H H H H C C 1 4 OH H OH H OH HO OH OH C C 2 3 H OH H OH Simplified structure Structural formula Abbreviated structure Figure 3.4C Three representations of the ring form of glucose

  12. CH2OH CH2OH O O H H H H H H OH H H OH O OH H OH HO H OH H OH Glucose Glucose H2O CH2OH CH2OH O O H H H H H H OH OH H H O HO OH H H OH OH Maltose Figure 3.5 Disaccharide formation

  13. Table 3.6 Sweetness scale

  14. Glucose monomer STARCH Starch granules in potato tuber cells O O O O O O O O O O O Glycogen granules in muscle tissue GLYCOGEN O O O O O O O O O O O O O Cellulose fibrils in a plant cell wall CELLULOSE O O OH O Cellulose molecules O O O O OH O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Figure 3.7 Polysaccharides

  15. Figure 3.8A Water beading on the naturally oily coating of feathers

  16. H H H H C C H C OH OH OH Glycerol HO C O H2O CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 Fatty acid CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 Figure 3.8B A dehydration reaction linking a fatty acid to glycerol

  17. H H H H H C C H C O O O C O C O C O CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3 CH3 Figure 3.8C A fat molecule

  18. H3C CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 HO Figure 3.9 Cholesterol, a steroid

  19. Unnumbered Figure Page 41

  20. Figure 3.11 Structural and contractile proteins

  21. 3.11 Enzymes

  22. H O H C C N H OH R Amino group Carboxyl (acid) group Figure 3.12A General structure of an amino acid

  23. H H H H H H O O O N C C N C C N C C OH OH H H H OH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH OH C CH3 CH3 OH O Leucine (Leu) Serine (Ser) Aspartic acid (Asp) Hydrophobic Hydrophilic Figure 3.12B Examples of amino acids

  24. Peptide bond Carboxyl group Amino group H H Dehydration reaction H O H H H O O O H N C C + N C C N C C N C C H OH OH H OH H H R R R R H2O Amino acid Amino acid Dipeptide Figure 3.12C Peptide bond formation

  25. Figure 3.13A Ribbon model of the protein lysozyme Groove

  26. Figure 3.13B Space-filling model of lysozyme Groove

  27. Unnumbered Figure page 44

  28. Polypeptide chain Collagen Unnumbered Figure page 44

  29. Figure 3.14 Protein Structure Levels of Protein Structure Leu Met Asn Val Pro Ala Val Ile Arg Primary structure Cys Val Lys Phe Ala Glu His Gly Val Ser Lys Thr Val Gly Pro Ala Val Asp Arg Leu Gly Ser Amino acids Hydrogen bond O H H O C C C N N H C O C C C R N C C N H H H O N C C O C C C N O H H C N C N O H C H C H C N N C N O C O N H N C H O O C R C C O C O H H H C C O Secondary structure C N H O N C C C N C H C C O O H N C C O N H C C H H N H N O O N C C N C O C H N H N C C H O C O C C N H C C C N O H C O Alpha helix Pleated sheet Tertiary structure Polypeptide (single subunit of transthyretin) Transthyretin, with four identical Polypeptide subunits Quaternary structure

  30. Figure 3.15 Linus Pauling with a model of the alpha helix in 1948

  31. H H N N N H OH N H N O P O CH2 Nitrogenous base (A) O O H H Phosphate group H H H OH Sugar Figure 3.16A A nucleotide

  32. Nucleotide A T C G T Sugar-phosphate backbone Figure 3.16B Part of a polynucleotide

  33. C A T C G G C A T C G T A A Base pair G C T A A T A T Figure 3.16C DNA double helix T

  34. H2O Dehydration … … OH + H H H Hydrolysis Short polymer Monomer Longer polymer H2O Unnumbered Figure page 48

  35. C Unnumbered Figure page 48

  36. Unnumbered Figure page 48

  37. CH2OH O O HOCH2 H H H H H H OH HO O HO CH2OH H OH OH H Sucrose Unnumbered Figure page 49

  38. H O H N C C OH H CH2 OH Unnumbered Figure page 49

  39. Enzyme A Enzyme B Rate of reaction 0 20 40 60 80 100 Temperature (C) Unnumbered Figure page 49

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