Language Shift and Language Death

LanguageShiftandLanguageDeath Daniel Schlunegger Sascha Kocher Basil Rohrer

Overview • Terminology • Somenumbers • Classifications • Types of languagedeath • Suddendeath (linguicide) • Radicaldeath • Gradual death • Bottom-up / Top-down

Terminology Schmid, Monika S. LanguageAttrition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Terminology • Languagedeath • Whenthe last speakerisdead • Extinctlanguage • A deadlanguage • e.g. AncientGreek, Latin, Old English, ... • May still beused in scienceor as sacredlanguages Crystal, David. "Whatislanguagedeath?" In LanguageDeath, 1-26. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000. "Extinctlanguage." In Wikipedia, thefreeencyclopedia. n.d. Accessed May 6, 2013. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_languages.

Terminology • Languageshift • Weinreich: "thechangefromthehabitualuse of onelanguage to that of another" (1953, p.68) • Community of speakersshiftsfromonelanguage to another • In mostcasespart of languagedeath • Languageattrition • Loss of proficiency in a languageby a healthyindividual • Aphasia • pathological, braininjury - Crystal, David. "Why do languages die?" In LanguageDeath, 68-90. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. - Schmid, Monika S. LanguageAttrition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004 - Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact, Findings and Problems. New York: Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953

Somenumbers • 5000 – 7000 livinglanguages in theworld • Half of themaregoing to disappear in thecourse of thecurrentcentury • Everytwoweeksonelanguage dies out • 96% of all languagesarespokenbyonly 4% of thepopulation - Crystal, David. "Whatislanguagedeath?" In LanguageDeath, 1-26. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000. - Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.), 2013. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenthedition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com. (Accessed May 6, 2013)

Classifications Fishman‘sScaleforendangeredlanguages AdaptedfromFishman (1991); Černý (2010) • Fishman, Joshua A. ReversingLanguageShiftTheoretical and EmpiricalFoundations of Assistance to ThreatenedLanguages. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1991 • - Miroslav Černý. “LanguageDeathversusLanguageSurvival: A Global Perspective.” In BeyondGlobalisation: Exploringthe Limits of Globalisation in the Regional Context (conferenceproceedings), 51-56. Ostrava: University of Ostrava Czech Republic, 2010. http://conference.osu.eu/globalization/publ/06-cerny.pdf.

Types of language death • Sudden death (linguicide) • Radicaldeath • Gradual death • Bottom-up / Top-downdeath

Sudden death (linguicide) - In a shortperiod of time a language becomescompletelyextinct (no occurance of languageshift) • Death of all oralmost all of it‘sspeakers • Because of catastrophicnaturalcauses, genocide, diseases, civil wars • Resulting in a high mortality and decay of thecommunity • e.g. The Black War in Tasmania - Campbell, Lyle, and Martha C. Muntzel. "Thestructuralconsequences of languagedeath." In InvestigatingObsolescence: Studies in LanguageContraction and Death, editedby Nancy C Dorian, 181-196. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989 - Crystal, David. "Why do languages die?" In LanguageDeath, 68-90. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Radicaldeath • Similar to suddendeath • fast decline of thelanguage • oftenpoliticalrepression and genocide • Loss of language"out of selfdefence, a survivalstrategy" (Campbell & Muntzel, 1989) • e.g. El Salvador (1932): • Insurgents of a revoltwereassumed to be"communist-inspired Indians"Thoseidentifiedwerekilled (10000 – 40000) • Out of fear, peoplestoppedspeakingtheirlanguage (Lenca, Cacaoperaand Pipil) - Campbell, Lyle, and Martha C. Muntzel. "Thestructuralconsequences of languagedeath." In InvestigatingObsolescence: Studies in LanguageContraction and Death, editedby Nancy C Dorian, 181-196. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989 - Crystal, David. "Why do languages die?" In LanguageDeath, 68-90. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. - University of California, San Diego. "SSHL: Latin American ElectionStatistics: El Salvador elections and events 1902-1932." Internet Archive: WaybackMachine. Accessed May 7, 2013. http://web.archive.org/web/20080521064730/http://dodgson.ucsd.edu/las/elsal/1902-1932.html.

Gradual death • Gradual languageshifttowardsthe dominant language • "immense pressure (...) to speakthe dominant language" (Crystal, 2000) • Intermediatestage of bilingualism • Young generationbecomesmoreproficient in thenewlanguage and lessproficient in theoldlanguage. • - Campbell, Lyle, and Martha C. Muntzel. "Thestructuralconsequences of languagedeath." In InvestigatingObsolescence: Studies in LanguageContraction and Death, editedby Nancy C Dorian, 181-196. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989 • - Crystal, David. "Why do languages die?" In LanguageDeath, 68-90. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000

Bottom-up / Top-down • Bottom up • Languagechangestarts at home, in thefamily and in peer-groups • “latinate pattern” which has been identified inUto-Aztecan “wherethelanguageis lost first in thecontexts of domesticintimacy and last in themostelevatedritualroutines“ (Hill, 1983) • Top down • Languagechangestarts at a higherlevel (e.g. government) • Languagepolicy and laws • Campbell, Lyle, and Martha C. Muntzel. "Thestructuralconsequences of languagedeath." In InvestigatingObsolescence: Studies in LanguageContraction and Death, editedby Nancy C Dorian, 181-196. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989 • Crystal, David. "Why do languages die?" In LanguageDeath, 68-90. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000 • Hill, Jane H. "LanguageDeath in Uto-Aztecan." International Journal of American Linguistics 49, no. 3 (1983): doi:10.1086/465790. • "Languagedeath." In Wikipedia, thefreeencyclopedia. n.d. Accessed May 7, 2013. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_death.

To conclude • Thereisneveronlyonesinglefactorresponsibleforlanguagedeath • Factorswhichputpeople in physicaldangeraremainlyresponsiblefor “suddendeath“ and “radicaldeath“ • Factorswhichchangetheculture of thepeoplearemainlyresponsiblefor “gradual death“

Language shift / deathandColonisation Overview • Colonialnations • 3 different typesofcolonisation • Diseasestypicalforcolonies • Pidgin • Creoles

Colonisation • Which countries werethe 5 biggestcolonisers? • Portugal • France • Spain • Britain • Netherlands

16th centuryColonisation http://www.balagan.org.uk

3 different typesofcolonisation, accordingtoMufwene (2002) • Trade colonies • Exploitationcolonies • Settlement colonies

Trade colonies • First colonies, especially at west coast of Africa and Asia • from 15th to 18th century • Languages: anything (trialanderror) Pidgin  Nolanguagesendangered

Exploitationcolonies • Manytradecoloniesturnedintoexploitationcolonies • Linguafranca • Pidgin • Urban vernacular Examplesforlinguasfrancas: Swahili in East Africa Wolof in Senegal Lingala in the Congo Hausa in Nigeria (Mufwene, 2002) • British empire: Coloniallanguagepolicy (Brutt-Griffler, 2002)

Settlement colonies • Producedmonolingualism, favouringlanguageofcolonisingnation (English, Spanish, Portugiese) • Languagesofslavesandeuropeansfromother countries doomed • Plantationand non-plantationsettlementcolonies • Indigenous languages lost due to diseases /war /relocation /language shift (adaptation)

Diseases in settlementcolonies • Smallpox • Measles • Yellow fever • Influenza • Cholera • Syphilis • Tuberculosis • … Over 90% ofindigenouspeoplekilled in theAmericas (Crystal, 2000)

4th type ofcolonisation • La Réunion and Mauritius bythe French

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8waBR2Hpsgk

Pidgin • From Chinese word for business (in Canton, even though no colony) • No native languages, are created (www.icaltefl.com) • Developed out of contacts between colonial and indigenous languages • Colonial language functioned as superstrate language which provided the vocabulary • Lingua franca in trade colonies • Examples: • I no no  I don’t know (Nigeria) • Come chop  Come and eat (Nigeria) • Brah  Brother or pal (Hawaii) • Garans  guaranteed (Hawaii) www.icaltefl.com

Creoles • Pidgins learned as native language by next generation • Further development of grammar • Mainly in settlement colonies  passing on indigenous language was disadvantage • Loss of indigenous language (slaves) enabled further development of lingua franca • Still in use in former plantation settlement colonies (Mufwene, 2002)

English basedcreoles • List oflanguages : • Afro-Seminole • United States • Aluku • French Guiana • AnguillanCreole • Anguilla • AntiguanCreole • Antigua and Barbuda • TokPisin • Papua New Guinea • BarbadianCreole • Barbados • Bbislama • Vanuatu • BelizeanCreole • Belize http://www.sorosoro.org

French basedcreoles http://www.sorosoro.org

Closure • ‘Indigenous languages have been eroded not by the European languages but by the indigenous lingua franca.’ Mufwene, 2002 • ‘Language loss has been the most catastrophic in settlement colonies and new languages varieties have emerged additively in trade colonies.’ Mufwene, 2002

Sources • J. Brutt-Griffler, 2002. World English: A Study of its Development. http://linguistlist.org/issues/13/13-2165.html (Accessed 4. Mai 2013) • Salikoko S. Mufwene, 2004. Language birth and death. http://humanities.uchicago.edu/faculty/mufwene/publications/languageBirthAndDeath.pdf (Accessed 4. Mai 2013) • Salikoko S. Mufwene, 2002. Colonisation, Globalisation, and the Future of Languages in the Twenty-first Century. http://humanities.uchicago.edu/faculty/mufwene/vl4n2COLONIZATION-GLOBALIZATION.pdf (Accessed 4. Mai 2013) • D. Crystal, 2000. Language death. Cambridge University press. 68 – 76. • J. H. Cossar, 1994. Influence of Travel and Disease. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1708-8305.1994.tb00553.x/pdf (Accessed 5. Mai 2013) • Online sources: • http://www.sorosoro.org/en/languages-around-the-world/creoles-pidgins-and-koines (Accessed 4. Mai 2013) • http://languagesindanger.eu/what-can-be-done/be-informed/ (Accessed 4. Mai 2013) • http://www.balagan.org.uk/war/images/1550_map_colonisation.png (Accessed 4. Mai 2013) • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8waBR2Hpsgk (Accessed 5. Mai 2013) • http://www.sorosoro.org/en/language-planisphere (Accessed 5. Mai 2013) • http://aboutworldlanguages.com/pidgin-languages (Accessed 5. Mai 2013) • http://www.icaltefl.com/index.php/resources/linguistics/385-pidgin (Accessed 5. Mai 2013) • http://humanities.uchicago.edu/faculty/mufwene/pidginCreoleLanguage.html (Accessed 5. Mai 2013)

“A language disappears when its speakers disappear or when they shift to speaking another language – most often, a larger language used by a more powerful group.” (UNESCO Website)

English

Main threat to smaller, local languages • Third most spoken language in the world (native speakers)

http://www.ethnologue.com/

Spread of English • Colonisation • Possessions outside of the British Isles used as trading posts (the late 16th & early 18th centuries) • Peak: Largest empire in history and, for over a century, biggest global power. (Ferguson, 2004) • 1922: British Empire  458 million people (Ferguson, 2004) • 1/5 of total population • almost 1/4 of Earth’s total land area

Spread of English • Colonization The areas of the world that at one time were part of the British Empire. Current British Overseas Territories have their names underlined in red.

Spread of English • Colonisation • After the British colonisation, dominant language in • United States • Australia • New Zealand

English in the world • 3rd most spoken language in the world by native speakers • Most widely spoken language in the world • About one-fourth of the world's population can communicate to some degree in English.

Globalisation • Globalisation typically assumed to be a purely economic phenomenon. • Social exchanges • Cultural exchange • Political exchanges • Technological exchanges

According to Crystal (1997): • 85% of the world's international organizations use English as their official language in transnational communication • About 85% of the world’s important film productions and markets use English • 90% of the published academic articles in several academic fields are written in English

US as #1 economic power • Technological advancements • Economic Globalisation Factors for the spread of English in the 20th and 21th century • Globalisation of the English language • Simplicity of the English language

Simplicity of English • Uses Latin alphabet (simple and short) • No use of diacritics • Verb conjugation is very simple and easy • Almost no Inflections • Analytical language • Use of Periphrases • Receptive Source: Torres, www.omniglot.com

Alternatives? • Best alternative would be Chinese if it were written in Latin alphabet • No conjugations or declension, but a very complicated script and tones. • Other examples: • Japanese: has very regular verbs but also a very complicated script • German has many more inflections than English • The major Romance languages, such as French, Spanish and Portuguese, have fewer inflections than most of languages, but their verb conjugation is very complicated • Russian has both complex verb conjugations and numerous noun declensions Source: Torres, www.omniglot.com

“It may fairly be said that English is among the easiest languages to speak badly; but the most difficult to use well” C.L. Wren (1960)

English as lingua franca • Most English as lingua franca (ELF) interaction are between speakers that do not share the same first language  Contact language • Simplified English as new pidgin? • Globish • Global English, World English

World English Seidlhofer(2005): “English is being shaped at least as much by its non-native speakers as by its native speakers. This has led to a somewhat paradoxical situation: on the one hand, for the majority of its users, English is a foreign language, and the vast majority of verbal exchanges in English do not involve any native speakers of the language at all. On the other hand, there is still a tendency for native speakers to be regarded as custodians over what is acceptable usage.”

Should we just let English “kill” other languages and all speak English?

Language Shift and Language Death