Chapter 6 Memory

1. Chapter 6 Memory Yonghui Wang School of Psychology Shaanxi Normal University 2010.10.16

2. Chapter 6 Memory Our goals: • Elucidate the definition of memory. • Explain the characteristics of different kinds of memory. • Discuss various explanations for forgetting. • Discuss how and why memories change over time. • Describe and explain the brain structures and regions that are the bases for memory. • Explain the special types of memory: autobiographical memory, flashbulb memories, eyewitness testimony.

3. Chapter 6 Outline • What is memory? • How do we form memories? • How do we retrieve memories? • Why does memory sometimes fail us? • Memory • The three systems of memory • Recalling long-term memories • Forgetting

4. What is memory ? • Memory: any system—human, animal, or machine—that encodes, stores, and retrieves information. • Each of the three parts of this definition represents a different process.

5. What is memory ? • The process of memory • Encoding（编码）: involving the modification of information to fit the preferred format for the memory system. • Storage（存储）: involving the retention of encoded material over time. • Retrieval（提取）: involving the location and recovery of information from memory.

6. The three systems of memory • The Sensory Registers（感觉登记） • Preserving brief sensory impressions of stimuli. • Short-Term Memory（短时记忆） • Preserving recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal, most limited in capacity. • Long-Term Memory（长时记忆） • Store material organized according to meaning, with the largest capacity and longest duration.

7. attention The three systems of memory pattern recognition

8. The Sensory Registers • Function: • briefly holds information awaiting entry into STM. • Encoding: • sensory images: no meaningful encoding. • Storage capacity: • 12~16 items. • Duration: • about ¼ second. • Structure: • a separate sensory register for each sense.

9. The Sensory Registers • Types of sensory • Iconic memory（图像记忆，余象记忆）: information from the visual system. • Echoic memory（声象记忆，余音记忆）: stores auditory information from the ears.

10. Storage capabilities D J B W X H G N C L Y K • Storage capabilities • George Sperling (1960) • Display a series of 12 letters like this • Hearing a high, medium, or low tone • Recall the letters • Recall the letters in the first line if a high tone sounded, the middle line if a medium tone occurred, or the third line if a low tone • Result: participant had stored all the letters in sensory memory.

11. Short-Term Memory • Function: • involved in control of attention; attaches meaning to stimulation; makes associations among ideas and events. • Encoding: • encodes information to make it acceptable for long-term storage. • Storage capacity: • 7±2 chunks.

12. Short-Term Memory • Duration: • about 20~30 second. • Structure: • central executive; phonological loop; sketchpad (Working memory)

13. Short-Term Memory ? How can we improve our short-memory? M O M E R Y H S O R T MEMORY SHORT • Chunk（组块）: any pattern or meaningful unit of information. • Chunking（组块过程）: organizing pieces of information into a small number of meaningful units—a process that frees up space.

14. Working Memory • Definition • A set of temporary memory stores that actively manipulate and rehearse information.

15. Working Memory • The Model of Working Memory • Central executive（中央执行器）: involved in reasoning and decision making. • Sketchpad（视觉空间画板）: store and manipulate visual images. • Phonological loop（语音回路）: temporarily stores sounds. • Episodic buffer（情景缓冲器）

16. Central executive Sketchpad Episodic buffer Phonological loop Working Memory Episodes or occurrences Verbal store (speech, words, numbers) Visual store (visual and spatial material)

17. Rehearsal—from STM to LTM • Rehearsal（复述） • Repetition of information that has entered short-term memory. • i.e. Remember strange phone number • Elaborative rehearsal （精细复述） • Expanding the information to make it fit into a logical framework, linking it to another memory, turning it into an image, or transforming it in some other way. ? How could we remember psychological theories efficiently?

18. Long-Term Memory • Function: • storage of information • Encoding: • stores information in meaningful mental categories. • Storage capacity: • unlimited • Duration: • unlimited • Structure: • procedural memory and declarative memory

19. Long-term memory modules I remember how to play a guitar. Motor skills Operant conditioning Classical conditioning I know what a guitar is. I remember buying my first guitar. Language, Facts General knowledge concepts Events ,personal experiences

20. Long-Term Memory • Serial position effect（系列位置效应）

21. Biological bases of long-term memory Hippocampus海马 Amygdala杏仁核

22. Associative modules of memory（记忆的联想模块） • Theory that memory consists of mental representations of interconnected information.

23. Associative Models of memory • Associate memory models help account for priming（启动）. • A phenomenon in which exposure to a word or concept (called a prime) later makes it easier to recall related information, even when there is no conscious memory of the word or concept. • A technique for cuing implicit memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection.

24. Associative Models of memory • Explicit memory （外显记忆）: • Intentional or conscious recollection of information. • Process with attention, intentional memory. • Implicit memory （内隐记忆）: • Memories of which people are not consciously aware, but which can affect subsequent performance and behavior. • Not deliberately learned, unintentional memory.

25. The connectionist Approach to Long-Term memory • According to theconnectionist approach（联结主义取向）, the activation of one cue leads to the activation of other, related concepts. • Connectionism（联结主义）is a model of the nervous system based on networks that link together individual units. • Connectionism is also known as the parallel distributed processing approach（平行分布加工取向）or the PDP approach.

26. Recalling long-term memories • Have you ever tried to remember someone’s name, convinced that you knew it, but were unable to recall it no matter how hard you tried? • Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon （舌尖现象） • The inability to recall information that one realizes one knows—a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory.

27. Recalling long-term memories • Retrieval cues • The “search terms” used to active a memory • Maybe a word, an emotion, or a sound. • Levels-of-processing theory • The theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which new materials is mentally analyzed.

28. Recalling long-term memories • Flashbulb memories（闪光灯记忆） • Memories centered on a specific, important, or surprising event that are so vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event. • Constructive process （记忆的建构过程） • Processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events. • Schemas（图式）

29. Recalling long-term memories • Memory in the courtroom • Are the eyewitness believable? • Repressed memories（被压抑的记忆） • Truth or fiction? • The psychodynamic explanation, repression, has met with skepticism among psychological scientists, who consider it vague and unverified. • Autobiographical memory （自传记忆） • Our recollections of circumstances and episodes from our own lives.

30. Forgetting • Ebbinghaus • Meaningless letters

31. Several reasons for Forgetting • Information in sensory and short-term memory appears to decayif it does not receive further processing. • New information may "erase" old information in long-term memory. Proactive and retroactive interference may take place. • Cue-dependent forgetting may occur when retrieval cues are inadequate. • Some lapses in memory may be due to psychogenic amnesia（心因性遗忘） • the forgetting of disturbing or shocking events • psychologists are divided about why this occurs.

32. Study French Study French Study English Study English Take English test Take French test Proactive and Retroactive interference Proactive interference 前摄干扰 Retroactive interference 倒摄干扰 Time

33. Proactive interference • Proactive interference: • Current (new) information is lost because it is mixed up with previously learned, similar information. • Examples • I have trouble recalling my new phone number, because I get it mixed up with my old number. • A student finds a new concept to be hard to understand because she confuses it with similar ideas she has already learned.

34. Retroactive interference • Retroactive Interference • Previously learned information is lost because it is mixed up with new and somewhat similar information. • Example • I have trouble recalling my old phone number, because I get it mixed up with my new number. • A student understood a concept last week but can no longer discuss the concept correctly, because he confuses it with other concepts studied since that time.

35. Memory Dysfunctions • Self learning after class

36. In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch proposed a three-component model of working memory. Over the years, this has been successful in giving an integrated account not only of data from normal adults, but also neuropsychological, developmental and neuroimaging data. There are, however, a number of phenomena that are not readily captured by the original model. These are outlined here and a fourth component to the model, the episodic buffer, is proposed. It comprises a limited capacity system that provides temporary storage of information held in a multimodal code, which is capable of binding information from the subsidiary systems, and from long-term memory, into a unitary episodic representation. Conscious awareness is assumed to be the principal mode of retrieval from the buffer. The revised model differs from the old principally in focussing attention on the processes of integrating information, rather than on the isolation of the subsystems. In doing so, it provides a better basis for tackling the more complex aspects of executive control in working memory.