Cognition 7A – Memory 7B – Thinking, Problems Solving, Creativity, and Language

1. Cognition 7A – Memory 7B – Thinking, Problems Solving, Creativity, and Language

2. Memory Memory - the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information. Examples: Sensory Memory Long-term memory Short-term Working memory Implicit/Procedural Memory Explicit memory Episodic memory Semantic memory Flashbulb memory Mood Congruent memory Context Dependent Memory Prospective Memory

3. The Memory Process Basic three step process…. • Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system. • Getting the info into the brain • Example: Getting the names of the 7 dwarfs into your brain • Storage: The retention of encoded material over time. • Retaining the info • Example: Rehearsing the names of the dwarfs so that they are stored in memory • Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage. • Getting the info back out • Example: Recalling or Recognizing the names of the dwarfs to get them back out of storage

4. 3 Memory Models • Atkinson-Shiffrin 3 stage model • Modified Atkinson-Shiffrin • Connectivism Model

5. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s 3 Step Model of Memory • Sensory memory – brief recording of sensory information • Example: the sea of faces as you walk down the hallway • Short-term memory – memory that holds few items briefly before info is forgotten unless consciously activated • Example – a new phone number is remembered only long enough to dial it • Long –term memory – relatively permanent and limitless storage of memory. • Examples: Knowledge, skills, experiences (flashbulb)

6. Sensory Memory • Sensory Memory - A split second holding tank for ALL sensory information • Examples:. • Iconic Memory – momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli • Echoic Memory – momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

7. Short Term Memory • Short –term memory • consciously activated • limited capacity – • Holds items for about 30 seconds without rehearsal • holds a few items briefly (7 digits +/-2) until it is forgotten or stored • Encoded visually, acoustically or semantically through rehearsal. Short Term Memory Activity

8. Long Term Memory • Long-term memory - Unlimited storehouse of knowledge, skills and experiences. • Unlimited capacity • Relatively permanent • Organized and indexed • Examples: • Explicit (declarative) memories – (Facts) • Implicit (non-declarative) memories (remembering how to do a task)

9. Modified Atkinson – Shiffrin modified (3 Stage) Model • 2 New concepts • Working Memory – active processing that combines novel (?) or important info along with info retrieved from long term memory • Instead of short-term memory being just a 20 sec. holding tank, this model includes the ability to briefly processinfo • Some info skips the 1st two stages in Atkinson’s/Shiffrins and is processed automatically into long-term memory • Example – Daydreaming in class

10. Modified Three-stage Model of Memory

11. Connectionism Model of Memory • Connectionism – theory that states that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons • Many neurons may work together to process a single memory • memory emerges from particular activation patterns within the network • retrieval of the memory is a reconstruction based on each of the elements of the pattern

12. On a piece of paper: Name the 3 memory models discussed today. Which do you think is most useful in explaining memory? Why? Did you encode the info? Is it in storage, if not why not? Are you able to retrieve it?

13. Pick 3 of the following terms and give an personal example of YOU using them: • Encoding • Storage • Retrieval • Sensory Memory • Short-term Memory • Long-term Memory • Working Memory • Connectionism • Name the 3 memory models we discussed yesterday

14. How We Encode 2 Ways of Encoding • Automatically Processing • Automatic • Parallel • Effortful processing • Rehearsal

15. Encoding - Automatic Processing Automatic Processing - unconscious encoding of incidental information • Examples: Unintentionally encoding…and later remembering • Time – day’s sequence of events, and remembering later you left your AP note cards on the lunch table • space – place on a page in your AP textbook where the term automatic processing occurs.. • Frequency – number of times you saw your Mr. Gielink in the hall • well learned info – understand every word in your AP Textbook • Unique or engaging info – “pop out” effect; things that stand out

16. Automatic Processing • Parallel Processing – processing of many things simultaneously • Allows many sensory experiences to be encoded all at once, some automatically, some with effort • Example: process a red car coming straight at you, you know to get out of the way!

17. Automatic Processing Spring is the the most beautiful time of the year

18. Encoding – Effortful Processing • Effortful Processing –encoding that requires conscious effort and attention • Example: Studying for your unit test on memory • Rehearsal – conscious repetition of info to encode it for storage • Example: Reviewing your AP note cards every night

19. Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve • Ebbinghaus Curve - The amount remembered depends on the time spent learning • Used nonsense syllabus to study memory • JIH, BAZ, FUB, YOX SUJ, XIR • The more time you rehearse on day 1, the less time it takes to relearn the info on day 2 • Overlearning – additional rehearsal after we learn material increases retention

20. Effortful Processing • Spacing effect – distributed study is better for long-term recall than massed study (cramming) • DO NOT CRAM!!!!!!!!!!!! • Example: Start studying now for your midterm—1/2 once per week! • Testing effect – repeated quizzing or testing improves retention • Example: giving comprehensive quizzes every month, or even better, quizzing yourself repeatedly

21. Encoding Information • Serial Positioning Effect – we tend to remember the first and last items on a list • Primacy Effect – remember items at the beginning of a list • Example: Washington, Adams.. • Recency Effect – remembering items at the end of a list (most recent • Example: Obama, Bush… • Rostorff effect – remembering unique items on a list • Example: Lincoln, Kennedy

22. Encoding Exercise What We Encode… • Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture/visual images. Example – appearance of letters – are they in ALL CAPS, Bolded, In Red 2. Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words. Example: “If the glove doesn’t fit you must acquit” 3. Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning. Example: “rambutan” may not mean anything to you – but if you put a meaning to it (a tropical fruit which means “hair” in Malaysian, similar to its physical qualities), you might remember it

23. Encoding Exercise Visual Encoding • Imagery – visual images help us remember concrete words (aided by semantic encoding) Example: Ipod, process, college, claim • Rosy Retrospection – recalling high points, forgetting theworst • Example: After a trip to Disney World, you remember meeting Mickey, Space Mountain, the turkey leg you ate, but forget the long lines, and the heat

24. Encoding Exercise Mneumonics • Mnemonic Devices – any memory aid that uses visual images and clever ways of organizing material • EXAMPLES: • Peg word system – memorizing a jingle and using imagery to associate items with the jingle • One is a bun (chicken squashing the bun), two is a shoe (corn filling up shoe)… • Method of Loci – use visual information with familiar objects on a path to recall info on a list • Example: remembering items on a grocery list by associating them with a place in our house (chicken is pecking at front door, corn is smashed in the foyer etc)

25. Encoding Exercise Mneumonics 3. Hierarchies – broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts • Example: See picture 4. Chunking- Organizing items into familiar, manageable units (acronyms) • Example: PORN – Proactive Interference: Old info interferes with New Retroactive Interference: New interferes with Old Every Good Boy Does Fine 1-800-IBM-HELP

26. Acoustic Encoding • Acoustic Encoding • Example: • The melody of your favorite song has been encoded into long-term memory

27. Semantic Encoding • Semantic Encoding • Examples: • Children in Israel, can sing the top rock songs from the United States but they don’t know what the words mean. This is because they are using an acoustic code to remember a song and sing it, but they do not have a semantic code for the meaning of the words. • Self Reference Effect – the tendency to remember information that is “relevant to me” compared to less personally relevant information • Example: I remember the meaning of rambutan because I was in Malaysia and ate them…yum!

28. Comparing Types of Encoding • You’re given the word EXTROVERTED, which of the following is an example of Visual, Acoustic, Semantic Encoding? • The word consists of 10 letters • The word rhymes with perverted • The word written in capitals • The word describes you well • Which would you remember better?

29. Storage Types of Memory • Sensory Memory • Iconic • Echoic • Working Memory/Short-term • Long-Term Memory • Implicit Memory/Procedural Memory • Conditioned Memories • Explicit Memory • Episodic Memory • Semantic Memory • Flashbulb Memories • Prospective memory

30. Sensory Memory • Sperling’s memory experiment • Momentary photographic memory • After flashing an image, participants had a momentary mental image of all 9 letters • Iconic memory – photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second • A momentary mental image that remains after the image is gone • Example: • A momentary mental image that remains after seeing a phone number flashed on the TV • The afterimage of Twirling a sparkler

31. Sensory Memory • Echoic memory – auditory memory lasting no more than a 3-4 seconds (mind’s echo chamber) • A momentary auditory impression that remains after the sound is gone • Example: a moment after hearing your teacher say something when you weren’t paying, you are able to answer the question “What did I just say?”

32. Working/Short-Term Memory • Duration – Brief (30 sec or less) without active processing • Slightly better for auditory info than visual info • Numbers better than letters • Capacity - Limited • Magic number Seven • 5-9 bits of information, ave. = 7 • The list of magic sevens • Seven wonders of world • Seven seas • Seven deadly sins • Seven primary colors • Seven musical scale notes • Seven days of the week

33. Types of Long Term Memory • Implicit Memory/Procedural Memory • Conditioned Memories • Explicit Memory • Episodic Memory • Semantic Memory • Flashbulb Memory • Prospective Memory

34. Types of Long-Term Memory

35. Implicit Memories • Implicit/Procedural Memories – without conscious recall • Processed by cerebellum and other brain areas • still intact with anterograde amnesia • Examples: • Bike Riding, Playing an instrument • Conditioned Memories – memories from conditioned learning • Example: Fear

36. Explicit Memories • Explicit Memories – memories of facts and experiences, consciously recalled • Processed by the Hippocampus • Verbal information is stored in the left hippocampus • visual designs are stored in the righthippocampus. • Infantile amnesia– can’t remember events before age 3 • Hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to develop • Example: Remembering the first President of the U.S.

37. Explicit Memories • Episodic Memories- memories of autobiographical events, situations, and experiences • Example:Remembering you 5th Birthday Party • Semantic Memories – memory of words, meanings, and understandings • Example:Remembering the meaning of vocab from AP Psych

38. Explicit Memories • FlashbulbMemories – clear moment of a emotionally significant event • Facilitated by stress hormones • Prolonged stress however, can inhibit memory formation by shrinking the hippocampus • Amygdala (emotion center of the brain) boosts activity & proteins into memory forming areas of the brain • Example: 9/11 • Prospective Memory – remembering to perform a planned action • Example: Remembering to meet your study group for the AP Psych Exam

39. Review • Come up with your own example of three of following terms: • Iconic Memory • Echoic Memory • Implicit Memory • Explicit Memory • Episodic • Semantic • Flashbulb • Prospective

40. Storing Memories Memory trace – memory is distributed across groups of neurons Long Term-Potentiation – Increases in synaptic firing potential of a neuron by increasing the number of receptors on the receiving neuron. • physical basis for learning and memory . • Neurons that fire together wire together…creating a memory. • Example: Rats given drug that enhances LTP learn a maze with about ½ the normal mistakes • Memory boosting drugs • CREB – proteins that make a cell more likely to keep a memory • Glutamate – enhances synaptic communication (LTP) which strengthens neural connections

41. Amnesia • Amnesia – loss of memory • Retrograde Amnesia – inability to remember past events • Example • Stroke, accident • “The Vow” • Anterograde Amnesia – inability to create new memories • Loss of Explicit Memory but not Implicit memories • Examples: • Clive wearing • HM (Henry Moliason) • 50 1st dates

42. Think Pair Share • Explain where explicit and implicit memories are stored in the brain, and the possible implications of these locations for amnesia victims.

43. Retrieval Recognition - you must identify the target from possible targets Example: multiple-choice tests • Recall - you must retrieve the information from your memory • Example: fill-in-the blank or essay tests

44. Ways to help you retrieve info • Relearning – learning material for the second time, saves time. • Example: Taking Psych in college should save you time for going to football games • Retrieval Cues – anchor points used to access target info for retrieval later • Example: Mnemonics, words, events places , emotions, tastes, smells, that trigger memory • Priming – unconscious activation of associations in memory • Example: See a rabbit and asked to spell hair, you spell hare

45. Context Matters • Context-dependent memory - memory is more easily recalled if you are in the same setting that learning took place • Example: taking your AP exam in the same room and seat you learned the info • Déjà vu – eerie sense that you’ve experienced something before • Example: When I saw the play Billy Elliot I had déjà vu …

46. The Context Matters!!! • Mood Congruent Memory – recalling memories consistent with current mood • Example: When you break up with your girlfriend you think about all the other times you’ve been dumped • State Dependent Memory –learning that takes place in one physiological "state" is generally better remembered later in a similar physiological state • Example: info learned when person is drunk is better recalled when person is drunk

47. Forgetting • Encoding Failures • Storage Decay • Retrieval Failures • Interference

48. Forgetting • Schacter’s sevens sins of memory • Sins of Forgetting • Absent-mindedness – encoding failure (inattention to detail) • Transience – storage decay • Blocking – inaccessibility to stored info • Sins of distortion • Misattribution – confusing the source • Suggestibility – linger effects of misiformation • Bias – belief colored recollections • Sin of intrusion • Persistence – unwanted memories

49. Encoding Failure Example – You can’t remember a person’s name that you were just introduced to because you weren’t paying attention What should you do to prevent an encoding failure?

50. Storage Decay Ebbinghaus Curve Apply the Ebbinghaus curve to Psych Class