THINKING GLOBALLY, ACTING LOCALLY: 1750 - 1914

1. THINKING GLOBALLY, ACTING LOCALLY:1750 - 1914 SNAPSHOTS OF NATIONS IN WORLD HISTORY

2. INDIA: EXTERNAL • Interactions • War: French Revolution impacts seas, princes, ports of India – English expand control • War: Numerous colonial wars of conquest; revolts against European control • War: 1858 Sepoy Rebellion of Muslims, Hindus against British rule • Diplomacy: UK gets external control, land, rights, Indians get local self-rule, protection, prestige • Diplomacy: India becomes a British imperial colony, extends rule to neighboring lands • Trade: Export relied particularly on opium, raw cotton, indigo dye, cotton textiles, tea, rubber • Trade: British make Indian economy dependent on English trade, merchants • Trade: Opening of Suez Canal made India economically very important • State Structure • 1750: Many princely states vie for leadership; English East India Company on rise • 1858: United Kingdom takes over EEIC after Sepoy Rebellion, rules India directly • Cabinet system was introduced; civil service appointments were regulated • Army reorganized, recruited increasingly from the Punjab and Nepal • Code of civil procedure (1859), penal code (1860), code of criminal procedure (1861), high courts (1862) • Legislative councils were appointed containing a small proportion of Indian members • High caste Indians allowed to hold higher positions • Joint Anglo-Indian rule • British: land revenue-based state, sedentary society, guarantees of property rights, and the “rule of law.” • Regional rulers, local communities, local elites retained most social, political influence • Locals advanced visions of what Indian society should be that were different from British administrators • First nationalist movements, Hindu, Muslim reform movements • Political leaders such as Gandhi begin to unite urban, rural and social, religious activities to unify nation • 1914 Indian Congress Party seeks independence for a united Hindu-Muslim state • 1914 Muslim League seeking independence for Muslims from a Hindu state

3. INDIA: INTERNAL • Social and Gender • Profound social changes both by British, locals • English hostile to worst aspects of traditions, caste system but rule through elite Muslims, Hindus • Rise of English educated and technical elite; Indian bureaucracy, civil service largely native • British abolish sati; tried to diminish effects of caste system • Wealthy Indian merchants increasing buy land and do not invest in industry, trade • Elimination of the Thugees, a murderous Kali cult by British • Increasing tensions between Muslim, Hindus; Sikhs prominent in Indian Army • British officials accompanied by wives, socially and intellectually aloof from Indian subjects. • Cultural • Founding of Anglo-Indian colleges, schools of higher education • Rise of Orientalism, a European intellectual school favoring Indian studies (Transcendentalists) • Protestant, Catholic missionaries very active in India, especially south; resented by Muslims, Hindus • Rise of Indian movie industry - later called Bollywood, largest in world today • Technology • British introduced printing press in 1778 creating an intellectual revolution • Printed media especially newspapers expanded in 19th century • British developed public works, ports, roads, railroads, bridges, irrigation canals, telegraph, post • Indian Great Rail System unites country for first time • Industrialization limited but some regional industrialization occurred in Bombay, Bengal • Environment and Demography • Indian population increased with new food stuffs • Increased urbanization • Growth of plantation economics in many areas: teas, rubber, opium • Immigration of Indian labor throughout British Empire

4. THE INDIAN EMPIRE, 1914

5. SUDAN • Interactions • War: Egyptian conquest of the Upper Nile followed by British suppression of the Madhis • War: Slaving, cattle raiding by Caucasian Muslims of Blacks • Trade: Slaves, ivory down Nile to Egypt later suppressed by British • Diplomacy: British intervene in 1896 to prevent region from falling into France’s hands • 1898: Fashoda Crisis - British, French, Belgian conflict over control of Upper Nile led to British victory • State Structure • 1821: Colony under Turko-Egyptian administrators, troops, tax collectors, slavers, ivory hunters • 1880-1898: Madhi centralized state under Wahhabis Islamic sect • 1898-1914: Joint Anglo-Egyptian co-dominion overseen by British commissioner, officers • Social and Gender • Immigration of Muslim Arabic Egyptians into Sudan as administrators, merchant, slave traders • 1850s: Expansion of Muslim slave trade against black southerners • Cultural • Mahdist jihad against Europeans, impure Muslims, missionaries, unfair taxes, in support of slave trade • Mahdism: puritanical form of Islam originated in region, spread to Arabia • Southern blacks largely cattle herders, animists: some Christianity amongst Nubian elite • Technology • Technology of Conquest: British used modern weapons, transport to control Sudan, defeat Mahdist state • Technology of Control: railroads built to Egypt, to port of Red Sea • Environment and Demography • North, East (Caucasian, Muslim, Arab) • South, West (Black, animist, Christian, Muslim) • Khartoum: newly founded city 1821; fortified trading posts established • Epidemis: Rinderpest, small pox hit region, killed 90% of cattle, flattened population growth

6. FRENCH WEST AFRICA • Interactions • War/Diplomacy • Jihads by Sokoto to spread faith; slaving wars; civil wars and disruptions between Muslim states • 1885 Conference of Berlin regulated partition of Africa, required Europeans to occupy lands they claimed • By 1898 French had reached Lake Chad and Nile River; Fashoda Crisis nearly led to war with England • Trade • Industrial capitalism shaped the demand, supply of goods and service on a world scale; price fluctuations • Export of vegetable oils, cottons • State Structure • Militant Muslim forces established Sokoto Caliphate, others in early to middle 19th century • French West Africa • Established in 1895 to unify diverse, widespread French colonial possessions • Government centralized, direct rule from Paris, by French governor; all levels of government, courts run by French • All French colonies had to be self-supporting, taxable entities; little direct French investment in colonies • Forms of resistance: migration, tax evasion, disobedience, disrespect • Much less obvious, much more difficult to control; resistance continued throughout colonial period • Africans turned to Christianity, Western education as means of resisting the power of colonial rule • Social and Gender • Expansion of slavery to interior of Africa; contributed to agricultural, craft, trading, and herding activities; social prestige • Mouridiyya brotherhood: peasants, former slaves, defeated warriors to create Muslim community during French colonial rule • French expect men to migrate for work; while slavery abolished, many coerchive forms of labor used • Cultural • Islamic education, piety made significant advances; greatest Muslim revival, expansion of 19th century • White Fathers Mission charged with Catholic missionary work in Africa • Technology • French weapons, transportation, steamships made conquest, control of empire easier • Use of quinine iin suppressing malaria, permitting Europeans to live longer in the African tropics • Environment and Demography • Expansion of peanut production (Peanut Revolution) throughout region • Introduction of cotton production for export

7. FRENCH WEST AFRICA

8. NIGERIA • Interactions • War: 1750-1830 saw slaving wars between African states; later many civil wars for power • War: 1870-1914 colonial wars of conquest, British forced to put down resistance • Diplomacy: British gradually exclude other Europeans from Nigerian area • Trade: industrializing countries sought tropical commodities (oils, cotton, ivory, indigo, gum) • Trade: increased slavery augmented production of goods for regional and international trade • Exploration: the Niger, interior of the continent • State Structure • Forest Regions: 1750 until conquest -Divine right monarchies assisted by elites, councils ruled small states • Sudan/Sahel: 1750 until conquest- Muslim jihad, reformist purifying movement creates modern, model states • Royal Niger Company instrumental in acquiring lands, facilitation British expansion to interior • British establish two colonies: North, South and eventually merge both into one colonial entity • British dominate highest positions including military; ruled indirectly through local elites • Educated Africans become government civil servants, lawyers, police, teachers under British supervision • Social and Gender • Before British arrival, slave trade redirected to interior and expanded; many economic, social benefits • African slavery contributed to patriarchy because slave wives had fewer rights than freeborn wives • Traditional elites remained but undermined by European educated elites, Christians, businessmen • Cultural • British, American missionaries set up schools, begin activities (Presbyterians, Methodists, Anglicans) • Rise of western educated elite due to missionaries, education which challenged traditional elites • In villages were men migrated to work, women assumed many traditional male roles • British economics, education disrupted many tradition patterns and changed social focus • Technology • Steamboats used in environment; weapons; modern medicines made conquest easier • Railroads, electricity, roads, port facilities expanded and created a unified colony • Environment and Demography • Abolition of Atlantic slave trade in 19th century but expansion of slavery within African interior • Peanuts, yams introduced into region, a major food crop: population expanded in 19th century • Rise of Lagos as administrative capital, port

9. SOUTH AFRICA • Interactions • Diplomacy: British acquire land from Dutch following Napoleonic war • Wars: European border wars with Bantu; Anglo-Boer War 1899 • Bantu Mfecane caused by Zulus; Great Trek: Boers immigrated into interior to get away from British • Imperialism: gold, diamonds led British to seek to control Boer Republics • State Structure • Cape Colony, Natal were British settler colonies; Transvaal, Orange Free State were independent • Indirect British rule of Africans through chiefs; 1853 British settlers acquire legislature, self-rule • Union of South Africa as a British federal crown dominion in 1910 united all states, provinces • Immigration Act of 1913 restricted rights of Indians, led to arrest, rise of Gandhi • Native Land Act of 1913 restricted African landing holding to under 8% • African National Congress founded by blacks in 1913; South African Nationalist party founded in 1914 • Social and Gender • 1795 Slaves outnumbered European colonists • 19th century saw expulsions of Bantu from lands; heavy English settler immigration to colonies • Casted society with misgenation laws, racial segregation laws in place • English Settlers; Afrikaaner (Boer) Settlers dominate society • Indian indentured labor in sugar plantations; mixed populations in Cape Colony, Natal • African (Bantu) populations relegated to homelands, tribal lands • Cultural • Conversion of many Africans to Protestantism • Caucasians dominated all levels of the government, economy as there were enough settlers • Technology • Railroads, modernized ports • Heavy mining of gold, diamonds led to industrial capitalism, influenced imperialism • Environment and Demography • Ranching and farming introduced • Cities were often heavily Caucasian, Indian, Mixed populations: black suburban slums

10. SOUTH AFRICA

11. THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA

12. INDOCHINA • Interactions • Diplomacy: Began century as Chinese tributary states, independent princely states • Diplomacy: Negotiations left Thailand as buffer and led to annexation of Laos by 1902 • Wars: French fought Chinese, Vietnamese, Siam to acquire colonies, protectorates 1859 - 1882 • War: many peasant/guerrilla insurrection, Buddhist rebellions against French influence • Imperialism: British, French rewrote boundaries at will with no regard for local history • State Structure • Vietnam began as imperial state with Confucian bureaucracy modeled after China • French navy conquer southern area, including Cambodia • Introduced European administration, taxing/fiscal systems but left many ruling elites in place • French monopolies on salt, opium, alcohol, and all public facilities • Social and Gender • French colonial administrators assisted by French trained Vietnamese bureaucrats • Confucian ruling elites, traditional social structures largely left in place but little influence • Cultural • Conversion of many Vietnamese to Christianity, repression by emperor led to French intervention • French practice policy of cultural assimilation of elites allowing them to rule locals • Migration of Chinese merchants to area especially in South, to cities • Many Vietnamese intellectuals educated in French universities • Technology • Minimal infusion of modern technology, irrigation, all weather roads, ports especially in south • Conquest by technologies of imperialism: warships, modern weapons, telegraph • Coal mines and rice plantations were opened with French funding • Environment and Demography • Rise of Saigon, Hanoi, Haiphong due to French administration • Export industries dominate: plantations for rubber, tea, rice

13. FRENCH INDOCHINA

14. DUTCH EAST INDIES • Interactions • War and Diplomacy • Dutch conquer island interiors following Javanese revolt • Dutch, English redrew political map according to their own desires; boundaries have lasted until current era • New boundaries connected particular power centers within a Dutch colonial state, outside state to Netherlands • Trade • Export industries increased rapidly until they came to dominate the economy • Capitalist, world-market-driven forces created national economic structures • State Structure • Dutch created new political framework • Systematically replaced local rulers, states with colonial state; Imposed modern bureaucratic systems • Standardization of currency systems, banking systems, insurance firms, and all-purpose service institutions • Left many local institutions, elites in place so long as they cooperated with Dutch, fulfilled their economic quotas • Sarekat Islam (Islamic Union) • United different kinds of Indonesian Muslims in one mass movement • Modeled after Indian movements, Chinese Revolution and parties • Social and Gender • Forced culture system: government contracts with natives, crop control, and fixed prices • Private enterprise, land ownership expanded in late 19th century; population subject to world price fluxuations • Cultural • Dutch Native Schools: primary schools, university education helped fuel Indonesian nationalism • Islamic reformism (education, self-reform) came to Indonesia via movements in Middle East • Debate between revivalist, modernist reconstructions of Islam; rise of ethnic identities • Prompted social and intellectual changes • Resistance movements and new political parties • Environment and Demography • Population steadily, rapidly increased; significant migrations into and within the area • Chinese, Indian trading groups made up significant percentage of immigrants • Introduction of coffee, tea, rubber, cocoa plantations; rice production expanded • Dutch developed tin, oil industries

15. DUTCH EAST INDIES

16. BRAZIL • Interactions • War: Home of Portuguese royal family during Napoleonic Wars, Uruguay independence • War: Triple Alliance war against Paraguay in 1870s • Diplomacy: Through negotiations extended borders against weaker states • State Structure • 1750: Portuguese crown colony, governors appointed by Lisbon, landed elite ruled • 1820-1888: Empire of Brazil, monarchy, social structure based on slavery, entrenched regional elites • Centralist vs. liberal argument dominated politics; many revolts by elites, poor in outlying regions • 1888: Empire abolished over slavery issue, federal republic declared, repaid slaveholders for slaves • Heavy influence of military, regional elites, wealthy elite in government; rebellions, military coups • Social and Gender • 1750: Plantation casted society with minority whites, majority black population: slaves, poor rural • Slave Trade, Slavery abolished in 1888 by decree of Princess Regent • 1888: Society with whites, blacks, mixed populations; remained casted • Society dominated by the landed, generally white elite; poor rural blacks were landless proletariat • Middle class began to grow in cities with rise of industry, export; workers were Italian, immigrant • Cultural • Ruling population thoroughly Europeanized; blacks retained many African traditions • Catholicism is the only unifying force and it is a syncretic blend; many traditional African beliefs • Technology • Railroads, steamboats, paddlewheelers opened up interior, united Brazil • Development of some industries related to export, trade; Sao Paolo rises as the industrial center • Environment and Demography • Sugar economy gave way to coffee, cocoa plantations • Mining increased, gold rush to Minas Gerais; rubber boom in Amazon led to mass immigration • Massive European immigration (laborers) especially Italians

17. PERU • Interactions • Trade • Exploitation of export commodities stiffened competition among military strongmen • Expansion of silver production, wool production for export • 1840s - 1880s: rise of export of guano (bird dung) as fertilizers for Europe; massive state revenues • Copper mines, rubber production begun with American finance capital • War • Wars of Independence led by Jose de San Martin and Simon Bolivar: Peru one of last colonies to achieve independence • War of the Pacific with Chile, allied to Bolivia to control nitrate, copper rich area of Atacama Desert • Chileans victorious, occupy whole coast of Peru • During which Chinese rebel, Indians rebel in highland; military coup leads to civil war • State Structure • After independence • Driven by conflict between rival military caudillos • Constant conflict between liberals (local autonomy, reforms), centralists (centralized state control) • 1895: New era of democratically elected rulers • Modernized administration; suppressed worst of Indian tributes; foreign interests bought up by government • Expansion of educational opportunities • Social and Gender • Indians and Africans • Indian communal properties abolished, facilitating their despoilment by landlords • Indian tribute continued to be collected. • On the coast, mestizo peasants and wage laborers participated in the market economy • In the highlands, Indian communities, mestizo peasants subject to coercion by large landowners, state • 1850s: Indian labor, slavery abolished, owners compensated • Conscript labor, immigrant labor in slave like conditions persisted in Amazon, out of sight of Lima • Technology • Railroads built, linking port to capital, interior to coast • Environment and Demography • Chinese immigrants to work guano fields

18. MAP OF PERU

19. BRAZIL: EMPIRE TO REPUBLIC