Europeanisation of Foreign Policy of Small States

1. Europeanisation of Foreign Policy of Small States • Dr. Tanya Colclough • Department of Politics and Public Administration • University of Limerick • Tanya.colclough@ul.ie

2. Objectives • Understand Europeanisation • Explain Europeanisation of Foreign Policy • Use Ireland and Austria as an example of the influence of membership on small neutral states

3. Europeanisation of Foreign policy • Europeanisation asks: what is the European way of doing things? • The EU effect • It is a voluntary process where members decide to take on the EU way • No academic consensus on precise meaning of the term • “unique nature” of foreign policy

4. Useful Definitions • Europeanisation is not a theory it is a conceptual framework • A process of the incorporation of the EU way of doing things into the domestic level • Acknowledges the impact of the EU on national policies and vice versa • Europeanisation is incremental and irregular • Re-invention of the Wheel?

5. Europeanization and Foreign Policy • Strong intergovernmentally so does Europeanisation have same effect? • Lack of extensive research • How far have national foreign policies of EU member states been adapted or transformed by CFSP? • No clear chain of command • Less pressure to adapt • This is not to say Europeanization is insignificant • Not irreversible

6. Europeanization and Foreign Policy (2) • States remain the main actors • lowest common denominator of the member states interest is agreed • Yet efforts to strengthen the institutional structures of CFSP • ‘Up-loading’ and ‘down-loading’ processes are useful

7. Europeanisation as Democratisation • As a process of democratisation • Political system • Market economies • Move away from Communist past through membership • Acceptance of EU rules • Important geopolitical position

8. Europeanisation as a Response to Terrorism • 9/11 promoted the role of Justice and Home Affairs • Four Freedoms had left Europe open • Spillover effects of economic integration • Europeanisation allowed problems to be tackled together • Cross-border crime, trafficking, money laundering • Framework Decision of June 2002, European Arrest Warrant, EUROPOL, Common Definition of Terrorism

9. Europeanisation as an Erosion of Sovereignty • Westphalia: state control over security & defence • Sovereignty means ‘that a state enjoys political independence from other states’ (Jackson and Sorensen ) • State and sovereignty are very closely linked • But does Westphalian concept still hold? • CFSP not been immune to Europeanisation • External Action Service, the Political and Security Committee and the EDA • Leads on to questions about identity and need for a new collective future through Europeanisation

10. Four Theoretical Components of Europeanisation • National Adaption (Downloading) • National Projection (Uploading) • Elite Socialisation • Bureaucratic Re-Organisatiion

11. 1. National Projection (Up-Loading) • Projection of national foreign policy preferences onto the EU level • Offers ability to pool resources • Provides incentive for those who need assistance • Pursued by large and small states • Lower costs and fewer risks: ‘Shield effect’ • ‘Reflex of coordination’: states utilise this new environment for cooperation • States can externalise national foreign policy problems

12. 2. National Adaption (Down-Loading) • Mirror Image of Up-Loading • Top-down process results in foreign policy adaption • Relaxation of national position • Depends on: • Foreign relations network, foreign policy identity, strategic culture • Shapers vs. Takers: Small States affected more by Down-Loading • Ireland has adapted quite quickly • New member restrictions means they have adapted

13. 3. Elite Socialisation • ‘the process by which actors internalise the norms which then influence how they see themselves and what they perceive as their interests’ Fanes • Belief system of policy and decision makers is effected by European norms • A club atmosphere therefore develops • Eg. Of the European External Action Service

14. 4. Bureaucratic Re-Organisation • ‘ Thinking in European terms’ • Re-Organisation of national foreign service structures • Extension of Foreign Affairs departments • New diplomatic services have been established • Brussels as central channel for foreign policy • Especially true in smaller states

15. UPLOADING VS. DOWNLOADING Can you give 3 examples of the uploading dimension of Europeanisation of foreign policy and 3 examples of the downloading dimension of Europeanisation of foreign policy

16. Small State Strategies • Differ to their larger counterparts • Benefit above average • Eg. COREU Telex Link • Presidency • CFSP • Interest in pushing integration forward Small Fish in a Big Pond

17. Analysis of Europeanisation of Small States… • Will depend on: • Length of membership • Participation in EPC/CFSP/ESDP • Convergence of national foreign policies • A weakening of neutrality in Austria and Ireland

18. Europeanisation of Foreign Policy in Ireland and Austria • More helpful to examine impact of European Cooperation on national foreign policy • Foreign policy is questionable & therefore more interesting • In looking at Ireland and Austria we are looking at 2 small neutral states who follow the European position • As neutrals they make a good test case for Europeanisation

19. Review of Austria • Federal structure with 9 states • As with Ireland limited military capabilities • But less benign security environment • Balkans • Neutrality Origins • Condition imposed by Soviet Union • De jure neutrality • Austrian Constitutional Act on Neutrality (1955) • EU membership • Smooth process in 1995 • Economic problems of 1980s & need for economic growth • Compatible with neutrality

20. Ireland’s Foreign Policy Terms Used to Describe Irish Foreign Policy before Membership Terms Used to Describe Irish Foreign Policy before Membership Marginalised Cocoon of introspection Introverted Localised Self-exclusion Self-conscious Island Beyond and Island • Focus on nationalism & partition • Anti-colonial heritage • Local security vs. Cold War security • Aversion towards power politics • Proximity of Great Britain • Limits of international experience

21. Impact on Neutrality through the years: • Basis of Irish Neutrality: • De-facto neutral • Policy not constitutional requirement • Devotion to the ideal of peace • World War II • Neutrality as a ‘negative issue’ • New independent stance • Militarily unprepared for war • UN membership • European integration 1960s/1970s

22. Europeanisation and Small State Strategies • Neutrality applied almost entirely by small states • Small State Strategies Include: • Support for Integration • Preference for supranational structures • Work for a system ‘based on law not on power’ (Smith) • They benefit from a politics of scale

23. Europeanisation and Small State Strategies • Active Participation within CFSP/ESDP: integration • Battlegroups • Petersberg Tasks • Further militarisation…? • Opt out of Security Equation during Cold War • Avoid “bandwagoning” • Active neutrality can also be pursued • Serve as an impartial “bridge-builder”

24. Triggers for Change in Neutrality Policies

25. Triggers for Change in Neutrality? • End of the Cold War • Questioned previous foreign and defence policies • Realists vs. Liberal Institutionalists • Globalisation • Opt for neutrals no longer an easy choice • Membership of the European Union • Move to a transgovernmental network

26. Triggers for Change in Neutrality? (2) • Socialisation • Increased EU cooperation and consultation in foreign policy – club atmosphere • Consensus & Confidentiality • Europeanised when holding the Presidency • Convergences of Foreign Policies • With a weakening of “outlier” positions • Explained by Joseph S. Nye’s Soft Power • Passage of Time

27. Pace and Intensity of Change Depend on: • Domestic factors • Same external pressures are translated differently • Historical experience • relationships with others • power resources, • government types • culture

28. Pace and Intensity of Change Depend on: (2) • Public Opinion • Need for consensus between elite and wider population • Neutrality as a positive source of self-identification • Mixed messages in Austria • Constitutional referendums in Ireland

29. Pace and Intensity of Change Depend on (3): • Party Politics • Austrian conservatives (OVP) more open-minded • Irish parties share support of neutrality to different degrees • National Foreign Policy Traditions • Mindful of “big neighbours” • Irish-US relations • Austrian-Balkans relations

30. Strategies and Positions in CFSP The Gulf War • UNSC Resolution 678 authorised the use of force against Iraq under Chapter VII of the UN Charter • EPC Framework weak and support for US led coalition came from the capitals • IRELAND • Economic interests, Irish hostages & troika membership • Support for economic sanctions then for Resolution 678 • Humanitarian Intervention supported also post conflict • Represented innovation in Irish Foreign Policy

31. Strategies and Positions in CFSP • AUSTRIA • Support was unequivocal • Over-flights granted • Neutrality re-evaluated by Penal Code • Verdross Doctrine altered • Orientated position towards European mainstream

32. Austria’s Similarities/Differences to Ireland • Neutrality is a relatively new concept • Problems with neighbours • Austria entered EU at a time when CFSP cooperation was far more developed • Differences in participation in Treaty negotiations and concrete foreign policy actions • Yet overall Europeanisation of Foreign Policy