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Scientific Revolution: 1550-1750

Scientific Revolution: 1550-1750. What was it?. 1. A time of major change in Europe, in which people made decisions based on careful observation, and they questioned old ideas. Why did it happen when it did?. 1. Church was challenged in Reformation. People were open to question old ideas.

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Scientific Revolution: 1550-1750

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  1. Scientific Revolution: 1550-1750

  2. What was it? • 1. A time of major change in Europe, in which people made decisions based on careful observation, and they questioned old ideas.

  3. Why did it happen when it did? • 1. Church was challenged in Reformation. People were open to question old ideas. • 2. Renaissance emphasis on Greeks (Plato and others) revealed contradictions with Aristotle (darling of the medieval church) and others already challenged in the Reformation. • 3. Also, emphasis on math and science in desire to imitate nature.

  4. Changes in ideas of the Universe

  5. Old View--Geocentric • 1. Earth was motionless and at the center of the universe. • 2. 10 transparent spheres; heaven after the 10th. • 2. Different physical laws applied to the earth and outer space. • 3. Aristotle and Ptolemy both supported this theory. • 4. Fits with church belief that God made the earth as a special place for mankind.

  6. Ptolemaic universe

  7. Then there was a Revolution

  8. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) • 1. Polish clergyman and astronomer. • 2. Published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies--challenged geocentric view just before he died. • 3. Still accepted Aristotle’s concept of spheres.

  9. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) • 1. Dane who studied extensively the stars on his own island. • (had part of his nose cut off in a swordfight) • 2. Doubted Ptolemy but couldn’t accept Copernicus. • 3. Eventually moved to Prague and took on an apprentice named…

  10. Check out the nose. Also had a pet moose.

  11. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) • 1. Took Copernicus’s ideas from logic to observation. • 2. Used Brahe’s data on planetary motion to determine three laws of planetary motion • 1. orbits are elliptical, not circular • 2. Planets move more rapidly as they approach the sun (against Aristotle and Copernicus here). • 3. Time a planet takes to orbit the sun varies based on distance from the sun. (earth 365 days, mercury 88) • But what kept planets in their orbits? Why didn’t they crash into the sun?

  12. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) • 1. Italian scientist who used controlled experiments to formulate laws of motion and inertia that were expressed in math formulas. • 2. One of the first to use a telescope. Heavenly bodies weren’t perfect!--craters, sun spots, four moons around Jupiter, etc. • 3. Supported Heliocentric view. • 4. Pope Urban VII forced him to recant.

  13. Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina of Tuscany (1615) • Written to address the conflict between the Bible and heliocentric theory • Argued that the Bible must be interpreted in light of scientific knowledge • Argued for a non-literal interpretation of the Bible • Galileo declared the Bible teaches how to go to heaven, not how the heavens go • The letter began Galileo’s troubles with the Catholic Church

  14. Starry Messenger 1610 • Revealed the flaws of the heavenly bodies: craters, sun spots, extra moons, etc.

  15. Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems (1632) • This book showed his true acceptance of the heliocentric view of the universe. He was called to the Inquisition and forced to recant. • Science, as preached by Galileo, became a threat, and scientists looked to Protestant countries to study, publish and work, to the benefit of Northern Europe

  16. 1. Galileo made two contributions to the problem of motion • 1. Objects move at accelerated speed if a uniform force is applied • 2. Principle of inertia--a body in motion continues forever unless deflected by something else. • But why were there changes in motion?

  17. Isaac Newton--MathematicalPrincipals of Natural Philosophy • 1. Principia--1687--combined Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, Galileo’s laws of inertia and falling bodies, and Newton’s own idea of gravitation. • 2. Described earthly and heavenly motion

  18. Newton’s Universe • 1. Universe was created by God and governed by laws that we could discover • 2. Law of universal of gravitation--All objects are attracted to each other. • 1. Every object continues in a sate of rest or motion unless deflected • 2. The rate of change of motion of an object is proportional to the force acting on it. • 3. To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

  19. Ike’s other contributions • Calculus (mathematical means of calculating rates of change), along with Gottfried Leibniz • Composition of light • Universal gravitation • The universe was one huge regulated, uniform machine that operated in absolute time, space and motion

  20. The medieval picture of the universe as closed, earthbound and earth-centered was replaced by a universe seen to be infinite and governed by universal laws. • But what of God’s role? For Newton, this, “can be the effect of nothing else than the wisdom and skill of a powerful, ever-living agent.”

  21. Newton disproved once and for all Aristotle’s idea that two different laws governed the earth and the heavens.

  22. Medicine and Chemistry • 1. Old View--Galen--4 humors • 2. Two separate blood systems: muscular and digestive.

  23. Medicine and Chemistry--New Views Paracelcus (Philippus von Hohenheim (1493-1541) • 1.--macro-microcosmic view of nature and chemical philosophy. • 2. Against Galen. Not 4 humors and imbalance. Rather chemical imbalances. • Like-like remedies. • 3. Father of modern medicine or homeopathy?

  24. Andreas Vesalius (1514-64) • On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543) • Actually dissected humans • Blood flows from the heart • Father of modern human anatomy

  25. William Harvey (1578-1657) • On the Motion of the Heart and Blood (1628) • Destroyed Galen--heart rather than liver originated blood circulation • Same blood flows in arteries and veins in a circle. • Charles I’s personal physician.

  26. Women in Science

  27. Margaret Cavendish

  28. Cavendish’s Ideas • Especially critical of the growing belief that through science, humans could be masters of nature. • Felt that man was just a small part of nature

  29. Maria Merian

  30. Entomology

  31. The Metamorphosis of the Insects of Surinam

  32. Maria Winkelmann

  33. Winkelmann--Astronomy • Women not allowed in universities. • Educated in astronomy by father, uncle, and another self-taught astronomer • Became an assistant at the observatory at Berlin Academy of Science (husband=foremost German astronomer) • She made original contributions (comet)

  34. Alas… • When she applied for a position at the university, she was denied. • “mouths would gape,” they said.

  35. Barriers… • Women excluded from university study • Women excluded from science societies until the 20th century

  36. Querelles des Femmes(arguments about women) • Women portrayed as: inherently base, prone to vice, easily swayed, and “sexually insatiable” • Men felt they needed to control these “out of control” women. (huh??!?)

  37. Learned women were seen as somehow overcoming their natural tendencies and to be more like men. • “You’d hardly believe this was written by a woman.”

  38. Women Argued… • That they were every bit as rational as men were. • That they were in fact, temperate, chaste, and pious (therefore, did not need to be “controlled”)

  39. Even with all the progress… • Science was used against women. • Biological differences were seen as weaknesses for women • Women meant to be mothers • Science “proved” male dominance • Scientific revolution reaffirmed the traditional gender roles….sigh…

  40. Scientific Revolution • With all these breakthroughs in science, people started to realize that we could learn more about ourselves and our universe through study and reasoning, rather than by simply relying on past ideas. This was the “revolution” in thinking. With this revolution came a new method of figuring things out, the…

  41. Scientific Method--procedure for gathering and testing ideas.

  42. Characteristics of the Scientific Method • 1. Belief in regular patterns in nature • 2. Use of controlled experiments • 3. Search for mathematical formulas to explain nature.

  43. There are two basic schools of discovery and thought • 1. The Empiricists use Inductive Reasoning: Discovering/observing physical information and data and arriving at a general conclusion. • 2. Rationalists. Used logic and thinking to arrive at conclusions using deductive reasoning: moving from general ideas to more specific conclusions

  44. 1. Mr. Gnass is mortal 2. Socrates is mortal. 3. Charles I was definitely mortal Therefore: Yep, sorry folks, but all humans are mortal. 1. All men are mortal. 2. Mr. Gnass is a man Therefore: Yep, Mr. Gnass is mortal. Which is deductive and which is inductive?

  45. Fun!!!!!!!!! • Now let’s guess who was a rationalist and who was an empiricist!! • I never thought history could be so fun!

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