Chapter 17: Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment, 1550-1800

1. Chapter 17:Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment, 1550-1800

2. New thinkers, scientists, mathematicians and astronomers began to use reason is order to prove new theories Main Ideas • The Scientific Revolution gave Europeans a new way to view humankind’s place in the universe.

3. Background to the Revolution • Medieval scientists, known as “natural philosophers,” focused ancient authorities, especially Aristotle, for their scientific knowledge • Renaissance ideals caused European scientists to adopt new views and methods

4. Background to the Revolution • Reasons for the Scientific Revolution • Technical problems • observation and measurement • New instruments • telescope and microscope • Printing Press • Spread ideas quickly and to the masses

5. JOHANN GUTENBERG • Inventor of the Printing Press which greatly enhanced communication and literacy across the globe

6. Background to the Revolution • Reasons for the Scientific Revolution (continued) • study of mathematics • Secrets of nature written in mathematics • Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton, and others–developed new theories that became the foundation of the Scientific Revolution

7. The Popularization of Science in the Age of the Enlightenment.This illustration shows the German prince Frederick Christian visiting his Academy of Sciences in 1739. Note the many instruments of the new science around the rooms—human skeletons, globes, microscopes, telescopes, and orreries, mechanical models of the solar system.

8. A Revolution in Astronomy • geocentric (Earth is at the center) model of the universe called the Ptolemaicsystem • Spheres revolves in circular motion around the Earth. • The tenth sphere is the “prime mover,” which moves itself and gives motion to the other spheres. • Beyond this is Heaven, where God and all the saved souls reside.

9. Ptolemaic Universe

10. A Revolution in Astronomy • Nicholas Copernicus contradicted this theory and published his famous work, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. • heliocentric (with the Sun in the center) theory • he argued that all the planets revolved around the sun, the Moon revolved around Earth, and Earth rotated on its axis.

11. Copernican Universe

12. A Revolution in Astronomy • Johannes Kepler also helped destroy the Ptolemaic system. • Used math to confirm that the Sun was at the center of the universe.

13. Galileo Galilei • “Father of Modern Science” • Used his telescope to re-confirm that the sun was in fact at the center of the universe • Also wanted to figure out what planets were made of

14. A Revolution in Astronomy • Galileo’s work began to make Europeans aware of the new view of the universe.

15. A Revolution in Astronomy • Galileo got into trouble with the Catholic Church, which ordered him to abandon the new system because the Copernican system went against the Church and the Bible.

16. Isaac Newton • What explains motion in the universe? • Newton published his views in Principia. • He defined the three laws of motion in the universe

17. A Revolution in Astronomy • Isaac Newton Continued • universal law of gravitation: every object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity • Planets traveled in elliptical orbits

18. Breakthroughs in Medicine and Chemistry • Andreas Vesalius, published in his On the Fabric of the Human Body • Breakthrough in anatomy with drawings of muscles, tendons, etc

19. Breakthroughs in Medicine and Chemistry • William Harvey’sOn the Motion of the Heart and Blood • Heart pumps blood (not the liver) • He also showed that the same blood runs through veins and arteries • blood makes a complete circuit through the body

20. Breakthroughs in Medicine and Chemistry • Robert Boyle • Chemist whose ideas were based on close observation and experiment • Boyle’s Law about gases–the volume of a gas varies with the pressure exerted on it

21. Women and the Origins of Modern Science • Margaret Cavendish • female scientist • Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy, said humans, through science, were the masters of nature.

22. Women and the Origins of Modern Science • In Germany, many women scientists were astronomers • Maria Winkelmann discovered a comet • Denied further work as an astronomer • Conflicted with ideas of the roles of women at the time

23. Descartes and Reason • René Descartes • In his Discourse on Method (1637), says that he can rationally be sure of his own existence. • he would accept only those things his reason said were true –“I think, therefore I am” • father of modern rationalism • reason is the chief source of knowledge

24. The Scientific Method • During the Scientific Revolution, people were concerned about how they could best understand the physical universe • They created the scientific method • The philosopher Francis Bacon was most responsible for this method

25. an unproven theory observation change it, discard it, or let it stand as is Click the mouse button or press theSpace Bar to display the answers.

26. The Scientific Method • Bacon emphasized inductive reasoning • He believed science was to give humankind new discoveries and the power to serve human purposes by conquering “nature in action.” • The control and domination of nature became an important concern of science and its accompanying technology

27. Chapter 17, Section 2The Enlightenment

28. This would be known as the Enlightenment. Main Ideas • Eighteenth-century thinkers used the ideas of the Scientific Revolution to reexamine all aspects of life.

29. Path to the Enlightenment • The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement built on the achievements of the Scientific Revolution. • reason, natural law, hope, and progress

31. John Locke • greatly influenced Enlightenment thinkers. • born with a mind that is a blank slate and that knowledge comes to it through the five senses. • society was governed by natural laws

32. Path to the Enlightenment • Enlightenment thinkers hoped to discover with the scientific method the laws that everyone should follow to produce the ideal society

33. Philosophes and Their Ideas • Immanuel Kant summed up the Enlightenment in two Latin words: • sapere aude: dare to know (i.e. have the courage to think for yourself. ) • The philosophes used reason to overcome obstacles to free thought and social reform.

34. Philosophes and Their Ideas • philosophe (philosopher) – enlightenment thinkers • Most were writers, professors, economists, journalists, and social reformers • Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot

35. Montesquieu • studied governments to find the natural laws governing social and political relationships • The Spirit of the Laws • identified three kinds of government: republics, despotism, and monarchies

36. Montesquieu and Political Thought • His analysis of the English monarchy is his most lasting contribution • government functioned through a separation of powers controlled by checks and balances • influenced the American framers of the Constitution.

37. Voltaire and the Enlightenment • Voltaire • Voltaire was best known for his criticism of Christianity and his belief in religious toleration. • Deism- religious philosophy based on reason and natural law.

38. Diderot and the Encyclopedia • Denis Diderot’s most important contribution to the Enlightenment was the Encyclopedia. • The Encyclopedia spread the ideas of the Enlightenment

39. Toward a New Social Science • The Enlightenment’s belief that Newton’s methods of the Scientific Revolution could discover the natural laws of society led to the creation of what we call the social sciences, such as economics and political science.

40. Toward a New Social Science • Adam Smith founded modern economics • if people were free to pursue their economic self-interest, all society would benefit • laissez-faire – hands off government politics

41. Toward a New Social Science • Smith said the government had only three legitimate functions: • protecting society from invasion (army), • defending citizens from injustice (police), • and maintaining public works like roads and canals that private individuals could not afford.

42. Toward a New Social Science • Cesare BeccariaOn Crimes and Punishments • No excessive brutality • argued against capital punishment

43. The Later Enlightenment • A new generation of philosophes emerged by the 1760s. • Jean-Jacques Rousseau -Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind • argued that people formed governments and laws to protect their private property, but the government relationship enslaved them.

44. The Later Enlightenment--Rousseau • he presented the idea of a social contract in which members of society agree to be governed by the general will, which represents what is best for society as a whole • education should nurture, not restrict, children’s natural instincts • he believed that emotions, as well as reason, were important to human development

45. Rights of Women • Mary Wollstonecraft is considered the founder of the European and American movement for women’s rights. • She argued that women were as rational as men and as capable of being responsible free citizens.

46. Rights of Women • A Vindication of the Rights of Women • Power of men over women was equally wrong • women are rational beings, so they should have the same rights as men–in educational, economic, and political life

47. Social World of the Enlightenment • The Enlightenment ideas were most known among the wealthy and well-read • Great increase in literacy and books

48. Social World of the Enlightenment • Enlightenment ideas also spread at the salon

49. Social World of the Enlightenment • Salons were gatherings in the elegant homes of the wealthy. • The guests took part in conversations, often about the new philosophical ideas. • Nobles, thinkers, artists, and government officials attended these salons. Some became very famous. • The women who hosted them could sway political opinion and influence literary and artistic taste

50. Religion in the Enlightenment • Most of the philosophes attacked the Christian churches, but most Europeans of the time were very religious • The desire of ordinary Protestants for a greater depth of religious experience led to new religious movements