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14. Wave Motion 波動

14. Wave Motion 波動. Waves & their Properties 波及其性質 Wave Math 波的算法 Waves on a String 繩子上的波 Sound Waves 聲波 Interference 干涉 Reflection & Refraction 反射和折射 Standing Waves 駐波 The Doppler Effect & Shock Waves 都卜勒效應和震波. Other kinds of waves 其他的波 : Sound 聲

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14. Wave Motion 波動

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  1. 14. Wave Motion 波動 Waves & their Properties 波及其性質 Wave Math 波的算法 Waves on a String 繩子上的波 Sound Waves 聲波 Interference 干涉 Reflection & Refraction 反射和折射 Standing Waves 駐波 The Doppler Effect & Shock Waves 都卜勒效應和震波

  2. Other kinds of waves其他的波: • Sound 聲 • Light 光 • Radio 無線電 • Ultrasound 超聲 • Microwave 微 • Earthquake / Tsunami 地震/海嘯 Wave 波 : Traveling disturbance that transport energy but not matter. 祇傳能量不傳物質的走動干擾。 Ocean waves travel thousands of kilometers across the open sea before breaking on shore. 海浪在大海走幾千公里才在岸上打碎。 How much water moves with the waves? 有多少水跟著波浪走? None 沒有

  3. 14.1. Waves & their Properties 波及其性質 Mechanical waves : mechanical disturbances in material medium. 機械(力學)波: 在物質介質中的機械性干擾。 E.g., air, water, violin string, Earth’s interior, …. 如:空氣,水,小提琴的弦,地球內部,… Electromagnetic waves: EM disturbances anywhere (including vacuum) 電磁波:任何地方 (包括真空) 的電磁干擾。 E.g., Visible, infrared, & ultraviolet light, radio waves, X ray, … 如:可見光,紅外線,紫外線,無線電波,X 光,… 干擾 傳播 傳播 1-D Vibration 一維震動

  4. Longitudinal & Transverse Waves 縱和橫波 干擾 干擾 傳播 傳播 Longitudinal waves 縱波 Transverse waves 橫波 1-D Vibration 一維震動 Transverse 橫 Longitudinal 縱 波動 Water waves水波 Water Waves 水波 Mixed 混

  5. Wave Amplitude 波幅 Wave amplitude = maximum value of the disturbance. ( w.r.t. undisturbed state ) 波幅= 干擾的最大值 (相對於未受干擾的狀態) Water wave: max height above undisturbed level. 水波: 超過未受干擾時水面的高度。 Sound wave: max excess pressure. 聲波: 過量壓力的最大值。 Wave in coupled springs: max displacement from equilibrium position. 在耦合彈簧中的波: 離平衡點的最大位移。

  6. Wave Shape 波的形狀 Waveform = shape of waves. 波形= 波的形狀 Pulse = isolated disturbance. 脈沖= 孤獨的干擾 Continuous wave = ongoing periodic disturbance. 連續波= 進行中的週期性干擾 Wave train = periodic disturbance of finite duration. 波列= 有限時間內的週期性干擾

  7. Wavelength, Period, & Frequency 波長,週期,和頻率 A continuous wave is periodic in both time & space. 一個連續波在時間和空間都有週期性。 Wavelength : distance over which the wave pattern repeats. ( length of 1 cycle ) 波長: 波的模樣重覆的間隔 ( 一週期的長度 ) 。 Period T : duration over which the wave pattern repeats. ( time for 1 cycle ) 週期 T : 波的模樣重覆所需時間 ( 一週期所需時間 ) 。 Frequency f : number of wave cycles per unit time. ( f = 1 / T ) 頻率 f : 每單位時間內波重覆的次數。 ( f = 1 / T ) 波長

  8. Wave Speed 波速 Speed of wave depends only on the medium. 波的速率祇跟介質有關。 Sound in air 聲波在空氣中  340 m/s  1220 km/h. in water 在水中  1450 m/s in granite 在花岡岩中  5000 m/s Small ripples on water 水上小漣漪  20 cm/s. Earthquake 地震  5 km/s. Wave speed 波速

  9. GOT IT 懂嗎? 14.1. • A boat bobs up & down on a water wave, moving a vertical distance of 2 m in 1 s. • 一條小艇在水波上載浮載沈,在垂直方向 1s 走了 2m 。 • A wave crest moves a horizontal distance of 10 m in 2 s. • 一個波峰在水平方向 2s 走 10 m 。 • Is the wave speed 波速是 • 2 m/s, or • 5 m/s ? • Explain 請解釋. ( Speed of disturbance 干擾的速率)

  10. 14.2. Wave Math 波的算法 pk @ x = 0 峰在 pk @ x = v t 峰在 At t = 0, At t , y(0) is displaced to the right by v t. 在 t 時, y(0) 往右移 v t。  For a wave moving to the left : 波往左走的話: For a SHW (sinusoidal) 簡諧波 (正弦形): = wave number 波數 SHW moving to the right 簡諧波往右走: = phase 相位 = wave speed 波速 Waves 波

  11. Example 14.1. Surfing 衝浪 A surfer paddles to where the waves are sinusoidal with crests 14 m apart. 一個衝浪手划到浪成正弦形處,波峰間隔14 m。 He bobs a vertical distance 3.6 m from trough to crest, which takes 1.5 s. 他從浪底到浪頂垂直距離飄了 3.6 m,費時 1.5 s。 Find the wave speed, & describe the wave. 求波速,並描述這波。

  12. GOT IT 懂嗎? 14.2. Figure shows two waves propagating with the same speed. 圖中兩個波以同樣速率傳送 Which has the greater 那一個有較大的 • amplitude, (b) wavelength, (c) period, (d) wave number, (e) frequency ? (a) 波幅, (b) 波長, (c) 週期, (d) 波數, (e) 頻率 L U U L U v =  / T

  13. The Wave Equation 波方程 1-D waves in many media can be described by the partial differential equation 很多介質的一維波都可由下列偏微分方程描述 Wave Equation 波方程 whose solutions are of the form 其解可寫成 ( towards 往  x ) v = velocity of wave 波速  • E.g., 例 : • water wave ( y = wave height ) 水波 ( y = 波高 ) • sound wave ( y = pressure ) 聲波 ( y = 氣壓 ) • … …

  14. 14.3. Waves on a String 繩子上的波 A pulse travels to the right. 一脈波往右走。 In the frame moving with the pulse, 在跟著脈波走的框來看, the entire string moves to the left. 整條繩子往左走。 Top of pulse is in circular motion with speed v & radius R. 脈波的頂正在圓周運動,其速率為 v,半徑為 R。 Centripedal accel: 向心加速度: Tension force F is cancelled out in the x direction: 張力 F 在 x 方向抵銷了: ( small segment ) ( 小段)  • = mass per unit length [ kg/m ] 每單位長度的質量

  15. Example 14.2. Rock Climbing 攀岩 A 43-m-long rope of mass 5.0 kg joins two climbers. 一條長 43 m,質量 5.0 kg 的繩索連著兩個攀岩的人。 One climber strikes the rope, and 1.4 s later, the 2nd one feels the effect. 一人敲了繩索一下, 1.4 s 後,另一人感受到效應。 What’s the rope’s tension? 繩索的張力為何?

  16. Wave Power 波的功率 Pulse moves to the right 脈波往右走 Tension is cancelled out in the x direction. 張力在 x 方向抵消了 • only Fy  F  does work. • 祗有 Fy  F  作功 String moves downward 繩子往下走  u = velocity of string in y direction. 繩子在 y 方向的速度 SHW : 簡諧波: Small   v = phase velocity of wave 波的相位速度

  17. Wave Intensity 波的強度 Intensity = power per unit area  direction of propagation [ W / m2 ] 強度= 在垂直於傳送方向的面上,每單位面積的功率 [ W / m2 ] Wave front = surface of constant phase. 波前= 等相位的面 Plane wave : planar wave front. 平面波:平面波前 Spherical wave : spherical wave front. 球面波:球面波前 Plane wave : 平面波: 源 Spherical wave : 球面波:

  18. Table 14.1. Wave Intensity

  19. Example 14.3. Reading Light 閱讀燈光 A book 1.9 m from a 75-watt light bulb is barely readable. 一本書在離一個 75 瓦燈泡 1.9 m 處祗能勉強可讀。 How far from a 40-W bulb the book should be to provide the same intensity at the page? 離一個 40 瓦燈泡多遠才會在頁面上有同樣的強度?

  20. GOT IT 懂嗎? 14.3. • The intensity of light from the more distant one of two identical stars is only 1% that of the closer one. • 從兩個一樣的星球中較遠那個來的光,強度祗有較近那個的 1% 。 • Is the more distant star 較遠那個星球是 • twice (a) 兩倍 • 100 times (b) 100 倍 • 10 times (c) 10 倍 • 10 times (d) 10 倍 • as far away? 遠?

  21. 14.4. Sound Waves 聲波 Sound waves = longitudinal mechanical waves through matter. 聲波= 在物質中的機械(或力學)縱波。 Speed of sound in air : 聲音在空氣中的速率: P,  = max , x = 0 P = background pressure 背景壓力。 = mass density 質量密度。  = 7/5 for air & diatomic gases. 空氣和双原子氣體  = 5/3 for monatomic gases, e.g., He. 單原子氣體,如氦 P,  = eqm , |x| = max P,  = min , x = 0

  22. Sound & the Human Ear 聲音和人耳 痛苦門檻 Audible freq 可聽頻率 : 20 Hz ~ 20 kHz 離搖滾樂團 40 m 強度位準 強度 正常談話 Bats 蝙蝠 : 100 kHz Ultrasound 超音波: 10 MHz db = 0 : Hearing Threshold @ 1k Hz 在 1k Hz 的 聽覺門檻 聽覺門檻 耳語 頻率

  23. Decibels 分貝 Sound intensity level 音強級 (或聲音強度位準) : [  ] = decibel (dB) 分貝 • Threshold of hearing at 1 kHz. 在 1 kHz 的聽覺門檻。   Nonlinear behavior: Above 40dB, the ear percieves  = 10 dB as a doubling of loudness. 非線性行為:在 40dB 以上時,耳朵會把  = 10 dB 當成響度加倍。

  24. Example 14.4. TV 電視 A TV blasts at 75 dB. 一部電視以 75 dB 在吵。 If it’s then turned down to 60 dB, by what factor has the power dropped ? 如果把它調低到 60 dB ,功率會降幾倍? 10 db drop  ½ in loudness 降 10 db  ½ 響度 15 db drop  between ½ & ¼ in loudness 降 15 db  ½ 至 ¼ 響度

  25. 14.5. Interference 干涉 Principle of superposition 干涉原則 : tot = 1 + 2 . constructive interference 相長性干涉 destructive interference 相消性干涉 Interference 干涉

  26. Fourier Analysis 傅立葉分析 這邊較深色的波… …是三個較淺色的波的和。 Fourier analysis 傅立葉分析 : Periodic wave = sum of SHWs. 週期性波 = 簡諧波的和 方形波 Fourier Series 傅立葉級數 這是 E 音的基本頻率。 再多加幾項,和便趨於方形波。 聲音壓力 相對振幅 這些較高頻的和音,由結他的獨特音質確定。 E note from electric guitar 電結他的 E 音 時間 頻率(基頻的倍數)

  27. Dispersion 色散 Dispersion 色散 : wave speed is wavelength (or freq) dependent 波速與波長(或頻率)有關 Non-dispersive medium 非色散介質 Dispersion 色散 Surface wave on deep water: 深水處的水面波: Dispersive medium 色散介質 • long wavelength waves reaches shore 1st. 長波長的浪最先抵達岸邊。 Dispersion of pulses determines max length of wires or optical fibres in computer networks. 方形脈波的色散決定電腦網路內電纜或光纖線的最大長度。

  28. Conceptual Example 14.1. Storm Brewing 打風 It’s a lovely, sunny day at the coast, 海邊這天晴朗宜人, but large waves, their crests far apart, are crashing on the beach. 可是沙灘上浪大,而且浪頭隔很遠。 How do these waves tell of a storm at sea that may affect you later? 為甚麼這些浪表示稍後將有風暴? crests far apart 浪頭隔很遠  long wavelength 長波長  v =  (  g / 2 ) large v =  (  g / 2 ) 大  storm that generates the waves are not far behind 產生這些浪的暴風随後將至 Note: tsunamis generate shallow-water waves that do not obey 注 : 海嘯產生的是淺水波,不能用

  29. Making the Connection 連起來 A storm develops 600 km offshore & starts moving towards you at 40 km/h. 一個風暴在離岸 600 km 生,之後以 40 km/h 朝你移動。 Large waves with crests 250 m apart are your 1st hint of the storm. 峰距 250 m 的大浪是你關於這風暴的第一個警訊。 How long after you observe these waves will the storm hit? 在你觀察到這些浪之後多久,風暴就會抵達? Time for storm to reach you = 風暴到你處所需時間 = Speed of wave = 波速 = Time for wave to reach you = 波到你處所需時間 = The storm is 15  8.45 = 6.55 h  6.6 h away. 風暴在 15  8.45 = 6.55 h  6.6 h之後到。

  30. Beats 音拍 Beats: interference between 2 waves of nearly equal freq. 音拍:兩個頻率差不多的波的干涉。 Constructive 相長 Destructive 相消 Freq of envelope 包封的頻率 = 1  2 . smaller freq diff  longer period between beats 頻差較小  音拍的間隔較長 Applications 應用 : Synchronize airplane engines (beat freq  0). 把飛機各個引擎調成同步 (音拍頻率 0) 。 Tune musical instruments. 為音樂器材調音。 High precision measurements (EM waves). 高精確度測量 (電磁波) 。

  31. Interference in 2-D 二維干涉 Destructive 相消 Constructive 相長 Nodal lines 節線: Amplitude 振幅  0 path difference = ½ n 徑差 Water waves from two sources with separation  從兩個相隔  的波源所生的水波 Interference 干涉

  32. Example 14.5. Calm Water 止水 Ocean waves pass through two small openings, 20 m apart, in a breakwater. 海浪穿過防波堤上兩個相隔 20 m 的小開口。 75 m from the breakwater & midway between the openings, water is rough. 離防波堤 75 m ,在兩開口的中點處,海面浪大。 33 m parallel to the breakwater away, the water is calm. 沿平行於防波堤的方向走 33 m ,海面平靜。 What’s the wavelength of the waves? 浪的波長為何? 平靜 浪大

  33. GOT IT 懂嗎? 14.4. Light shines through two small holes onto a screen in a dark room. 光從兩個小孔照到黑房內的銀幕上。 The holes spacing is comparable to the wavelength of the light. 兩孔間的距離與光的波長相當。 Looking at the screen, will you see 在銀幕上你可以看到 • two bright spots (a) 兩個亮點 • a pattern of light & dark patches? (b) 一個有明有暗的圖案 Explain. 解釋之。

  34. 14.6. Reflection & Refraction 反射和折射 light + heavy ropes 輕 + 重繩 A = 0; reflected wave inverted 反射波顛倒 A = max; reflected wave not inverted 反射波不顛倒 Partial Reflection 部份反射 Fixed end 末端固定 Free end 末端可動 Rope 繩

  35. Partial reflection + normal incidence 部份反射 + 正入射 Partial reflection + oblique incidence  refraction 部份反射 + 斜入射  折射

  36. Application: Probing the Earth 探測地球 震央 P wave = longitudinal 主波= 縱 S wave = transverse 次波= 橫 次波紀錄 次波紀錄 S wave shadow  liquid outer core 次波陰影  液態外殼 固體 P wave partial reflection  solid inner core 主波部分反射  固態內殼 液體 Explosive thumps  oil / gas deposits 炸药鎚  油 / 氣礦藏 次波陰影區

  37. 14.7. Standing Waves 駐波 Superposition of right- travelling & reflected waves: 往右走的和反射的波重疊:  B =  A 反波節 波節 standing wave 駐波  String with both ends fixed: 兩端都固定的繩子:  Allowed waves = modes or harmonics 容許的波 = 模式 或 諧波 n = mode number 模號 n = 1  fundamental mode 基模 n > 1  overtones 泛音 y = 0  node波節 y = max  antinode 反波節 Standing Waves 駐波

  38. 1 end fixed  node, 一端固定  波節 1 end free  antinode. 一端可動  反波節 反波節 波節 波節  Standing Waves 駐波

  39. Standing Wave Resonance 駐波共振 fundamental mode ~ lowest freq 基本模式 ~ 頻率最低 overtones ~ multiples of fund. freq 泛音 ~ 基頻的倍數 v = const  Skyscraper ~ string with 1 free end & 1 fixed end. 摩天樓 ~ 一端可動,一端固定的繩子。 Tacoma bridge: resonance of torsional standing waves. 塔科馬橋:扭力駐波的共振。 Other Standing Waves 其他的駐波 : • Water waves in confined spaces (waves in lake). 在有限空間內的水波 (湖波) • EM waves in cavity (microwave oven). 諧振腔內的電磁波 (微波爐) • Sound wave in the sun. 太陽裏的聲波 • Electrons in atom. 原子內的電子

  40. Musical Instruments 音樂器材 • Standing waves in wind instruments 吹奏樂器的駐波 : • open at one end 一端開口 L = (2n1)  / 4 (b) open at both ends 兩端都開口 L = n  / 2 Standing waves on a violin, imaged using holographic interference of laser light waves. 小提琴的駐波, 用雷射光波的全像干涉所得的照片

  41. Example 14.6. Double Bassoon 倍低音(或巴松)管 Double bassoon is the lowest pitched instrument in most orchestra. 倍低音管在大部份的交響樂團都是最低音的樂器。 It’s “folded” to achieve an effective open-ended column of 5.5 m long. 它用“疊起來”的方法造成一個有効長度達到 5.5 m 的開口管。 What is the fundamental freq, assuming sound speed is 343 m/s. 假設音速為 343 m/s ,它的基頻是多少?  / 2 ~ B0

  42. GOT IT 懂嗎? 14.5. A string 1 m long is clamped tight at one end & free to slide up & down at the other. 一條 1m 長的繩子一端縛緊,一端可上下滑動。 Which of the following are possible wavelengths for standing waves on it: 以下的波長中,那些有可能是它的駐波: 4/5 m, 1 m, 4/3 m, 3/2 m, 2 m, 3 m, 4 m, 5 m, 6 m, 7 m, 8 m ?

  43. 14.8. The Doppler Effect & Shock Waves都卜勒效應和震波 Point source at rest in medium radiates uniformly in all directions. 點波源停在介質中,朝四方八面均勻地輻射。 When source moves, wave crests bunch up in the direction of motion (   ). 波源移動時,波峯在動的方向堆起來 (   ) 。 Wave speed v is a property of the medium & hence independent of source motion. 波速 v 是介質的性質,因此與波源的動態無關。  Approaching source: 波源朝你來:   f  Doppler effect 都卜勒效應

  44. t = 0 u T T = period of wave 波的週期 u = speed of source 波源的速率 t = T t = 2T 2 uT = uT . 趨前 趨前 後退 後退 Moving Source 移動中的波源

  45. Application of the Doppler effect 都卜勒效應的應用 : • Ultrasound: measures blood flow & fetal heartbeat. 超聲波:量血液流量和胎兒心跳。 • High freq radio wave: speeding detector. 高頻無線電波:超速偵測器。 • Starlight: stellar motion. 星光:星球動態 • Light from galaxies: expanding universe. 銀河來的光:宇宙膨脹。

  46. Example 14.7. Wrong Note 錯的音 A car speeds down the highway with its stereo blasting. 一部車子在公路上奔馳,音響開很大。 An observer with perfect pitch stands by the roadside, & as the car approach, notices that a musical note that should be G ( f = 392 Hz ) sounds like A ( 440 Hz ). 一個能完美辨音的觀察者站在路旁。當車子靠近時,他發現一個應該是 G ( f = 392 Hz ) 的音,聽來像個 A ( 440 Hz ) 。 How fast is the car moving? 車子走多快?

  47. Moving Observers 動的觀察者 An observer moving towards a point source at rest in medium sees a faster moving wave. 一個朝停在介質中的點波源走過去的觀察者看到的波走得比較快。 Since  is unchanged, observed f increases. 因  沒變,量到的 f 變大。 For u/v << 1: Prob. 76 • Waves from a stationary source that reflect from a moving object undergo 2 Doppler effects. • 從一個靜止波源而來的波,被一個在動的物體反射後,會經歷二次都卜勒效應。 • A f toward shift at the object. 在物體處一次 f toward 頻移。 • A f approach shift when received at source. 在波源處被接收時一次 f approach 頻移。

  48. Doppler Effect for Light 光的都卜勒效應 Doppler shift for EM waves is the same whether the source or the observer moves. 電磁波的都卜勒效應,不論是光源或是觀察者在動,結果都一樣。 correct to 1st order in u/c 準到 u/c 的一次

  49. Shock Waves 震波 Shock wave 震波 : u > v Mach number 馬克數 = u / v Mach angle 馬克角度 = sin1(v/u)  if Source, 1 period ago 波源,一週期前 Moving Source 移動中的波源 E.g. 例 , Bow wave of boat. 小艇的船頭波 Sonic booms. 音爆 Solar wind at ionosphere 在電離層的太陽風 Shock wave front 震波波前

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