Chapter 7: Ethics Morality as Virtue: Aristotle

1. Chapter 7: EthicsMorality as Virtue: Aristotle Introducing Philosophy, 10th edition Robert C. Solomon, Kathleen Higgins, and Clancy Martin

2. Virtue • Aristotle’s conception of virtue is based on the idea that man is a rational being • Thus, for Aristotle, virtue is a rational activity: activity in accordance with a rational principle

3. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) • One of the greatest Western philosophers, born in northern Greece (Stagira); father was the physician to Philip, king of Macedonia • Was to tutor Philip’s son, Alexander the Great • For eighteen years he was a student in Plato’s Academy, where he learned and parted from Plato’s views • Turned to the study of biology; many of his theories ruled Western science until the Renaissance • Was with Alexander until 335 B.C.E., when he returned to Athens to set up his own school, the Lyceum

4. After Alexander’s death, the anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens forced Aristotle to flee • Virtually created the sciences of logic and linguistics, developed extravagant theories in physics and astronomy, and made significant contributions to metaphysics, ethics, politics, and aesthetics • Metaphysics is still a basic text on the subject • Nicomachean Ethics codified ancient Greek morality; stresses individual virtue and excellence

5. The best life of all is the life of contemplation, the life of a philosopher, for it is the most self-contained and the “closest to the gods” • Such contemplation must be together with the pleasures of life, honor, wealth, and virtuous action

6. Happiness • Every act is for the sake of something else. But because there can be no infinite regress, there must be an end. What is the natural end that is the natural good for man? Aristotle claims that it is happiness • Happiness is what men desire for its own sake and is the natural good for man. Happiness, for Aristotle, is living according to rationality, the exercise of our most vital faculties

7. Reason • The good for man is that which is “natural” to him. What is “natural” to man is his rationality. But action according to rational principles is what Aristotle thinks virtue is • Thus, happiness is an “activity of the soul in accordance with perfect virtue”

8. Society • Virtue is a social conception and not limited to just the individual. Many of Aristotle’s virtues have much to do with one’s role in society. Happiness, therefore, also has social dimensions • Aristotle’s conception of happiness (eudaimonia) is different than the modern conception. Happiness is more like “living well” or “flourishing”

9. Two Kinds of Virtue • The practical or moral virtues and the intellectual virtues • Moral virtues come to virtuous people “naturally”; in other words, virtuous people have virtue built into their characters

10. The Golden Mean • Virtue as a mean between two extremes • Not the same as moderation • Examples: • Courage is the mean between cowardice and rashness • Temperance is the mean between self-indulgence and insensitivity • Magnificence is the mean between vulgarity and miserliness • Pride is the mean between humility and vanity • Wittiness is the mean between buffoonery and boorishness

11. Morality and Sentiment: Hume and Rousseau • Hume: “reason is and ought to be the slave of the passions” • Reason can assist in acquiring our desires but not in determining our desires • Cannot derive “ought” from “is”

12. Rousseau: conscience–a powerful moral feeling • Problems: • When in disagreement, what standard adjudicates? • In agreement, how can we know we are correct?