The

1. The Almoravid and Almohad Empires Economy and Government

2. Economy and Government Almoravid – Almohad eras (11th-13th C.): political upheaval, warfare Affected economic life: trade (regional, international) and production (rural, urban) But not equally across empires: Ifriqiya and al-Andalusia most badly affected

3. Economy and Government With problems being warfare Christians northern al-Andalus and BanuHilal (Fatimid Egyptians) in east. . . Morocco most able to withstand -- centre of Empires [Bennison] Morocco became economic as well as political centre of Almoravisds, Almohads

4. Economy and Government Video (“Almoravid & Almohad Empires”) Emphasized trade of Sijilmasssa and Marrakesh -- international; industry of Fez (leather) But: what was not mentioned was that Morocco sat in the middle of much large network linking al-Andalusia to Ifriqiya to Egypt – and beyond[focus of ‘Discussion Class’: see Bennison 191-209 ]

5. Economy and Government Heart of economy in Rural areas: Wide range of land management regulated by Islamic Law: not feudal ownership as in Europe Caliph had right to much land, all ‘sub-soil’ minerals (including water): good distribute Other: religious (waqf); community; private (minimal)

6. Economy and Government Sanhaja (Almoravids): desert people, pastoralists, oasis cultivators Masmuda (Almohads): mountain people – terraced, irrigated agriculture, small stock animal husbandry (seasonal migration) Ifriqiya Berbers (Fatimids, conquered by Almohads): Mediterranean plains (fruit, grain cultivators; small-stock animals)

7. Economy and Government Crops: Maghreb plains, southern al-Andalus: cereals- millet, wheat, barley in Maghreb- high-quality rice (introduced from India via Muslim networks) in al-Andalus Fruits: climate in both regions equally suited- olives, figs, grapes- dates (in desert-edge oases of Maghreb)

8. Economy and Government Crops: Sugar Cane Introduced by Muslims across these Empires Found in al-Andalus mid-8th c., in Maghreb by end of 9th c. Especially high quality grew in Sus (south of Atlas Mts) Morocco: produced with slave labour

9. Economy and Government Crops: Silk, flax, cotton supported important textile industries Especially important: Silk worm from Syria introduced by Muslims to al-Andalusia, Ifriqiya “very fine quality”

10. Economy and Government Agricultural Technology: irrigation Many of these crops, so important to rural economy (and urban industry, see below) required irrigation “Hydraulic engineering and the social dispersal of water” was crucial to the management of the rural economy [Bennison]

11. Economy and Government Water Irrigation Systems: Muslims developed sophisticated sysems of water irrigation Some ‘left’ (and built on) from early Romans But many imported from Persia – underground channels [qanats], canals, aqueducts feeding into cisterns, reservoirs; use of water wheels

12. Economy and Government Bennison: “It is still possible to see the remains of vertical wells that drew water from qanats in the landscape west of the Ziz Valley [the rich oasis area the Almoravids moved into, see earlier lecture] where Sijilmassa was located” [see Video ‘Almoravids & Almohads’ – segment on Berber irrigation]

13. Economy and Government Irrigation systems: ranged from Large systems, covering whole regions, often using water wheels, to. . . Medium-sized systems, usually for terraced (hillside, mountain) fields, gardens to . . . Small-sized, usually one farm/family (any region)

14. Economy and Government Key Issue: distribution of water Regulated by combination: customary practice/tradition and Islamic Law ‘Law’: water use determined by priorities – drinking and ablutions (washing before prayer); farming (irrigation); industry (milling, tanning, mining)

15. Economy and Government Problems: Most often caused by ‘where’ people lived on river -- ‘upstream’ vs ‘downstream’ complicated by development of new irrigation systems interrupting availability of water Qadi’s (Islamic Judges) required: “Maliki fatwas(opinions) of this kind were much more relevant to their [rural people’s] lives than theological or doctrinal issues” [Bennison]

16. Economy and Government Pastoralism, Stock-keeping: domestic, commercial Most people kept chickens, goats, sheep, working/transport animals (donkeys, oxen) Military ‘cavalry’: needed horses, camels Animals also supplied: skins (leather), wool (sheep), camel hair (for tents, ropes)

17. Economy and Government Pastoralists: key factor in historiographical debate Ifriqiya: with arrival of Banu Hilal Arabs, urbanisation declined, trade became more local Historians believed that ‘pastoralist conquerors caused this’ [destruction]: now realized that decline of urban society more symptom of larger economic change than role of pastoralists [e.g. al-Andalus]

18. Economy and Government Role of Mining: Iron, copper, silver found in many parts of empires; antimony mine central Maghreb [frequently mentioned in Discussion Docs] Salt: key to trans-Saharan trade – element in early Almoravid rivalries, source of ‘myths’ salt castles, slave workers…(al-Bakri)

19. Economy and Government Source of Gov’t Revenue: Islamic Law gave rulers rights to ‘all that lay beneath the ground’ 1/5 taxation on all trade from mines: strongly enforced – with army if necessary Salt of Sahara later drew Moroccans back across Sahara to conquer African empire of Mali

20. Economy and Government Processing: while much produce consumed locally/regionally, Others like sugar cane, hides, minerals, timber had to be transported ‘somewhere else’ for processing led to rise of urban industry, manufacturing: [video segment on Fez and leather manufacturing – drew on 12th c. account Bennison reproduces p. 194]

21. Economy and Government Bennison reiterates point: description could apply to many Andalusian and Maghrebian cities Highlights significant shift in local manufacturing: beginning Almoravid empire most ‘towns’ were markets along trade routes moving goods between sub-Saharan Africa, al-Andalus, Ifriqiya, East Few ‘manufacturing complexes’; no Marrakesh

22. Economy and Government Cities of Andalusia: thriving manufacturing centres for centuries swords, armor, weapons, fine leather, embroidered silks, woolens, rugs, bookspaper, processed agricultural goods (olive oils, honey) … Rise of Maghreb: al-Andalus became ‘province’ rather than Imperial Metropole: manufacturing moved south to Fez, Rabat-Sale, Marrakesh

23. Economy and Government Almoravids and Almohads recruited master craftsmen from al-Andalus: carpenters, builders, engravers, marble carvers In al-Andalus: pressure by Christians in north pushed Muslim economic centres towards south: America in particular flourished in 11th-century [note frequency of mention in Discussion Documents]

24. Economy and Government Role of Government: provide environment for safe and pious life – must be able to live as good Muslim substantial military force, overseeing of market place, adjudication commercial disputes by judges Source of gifts, charity to poor, ulama ‘circulate benefits of power’ to elite which was usually tax exempt [point discussed in Hoyland]

25. Economy and Government “Extractive Machine” : Bureaucracy to gather revenues, store them, disperse them appropriately makhzam : term for government meaning ‘storehouse’ – state was tax collector, landowner, coin-producer, trader, agricultural developer

26. Economy and Government Taxes: determined by Islamic Law [Bennison lists, explains p.210] e.g. ‘alms’, 1/10 ‘in kind’ (cereals, other produce that could be paid/stored in kind), taxes on conquered land held by non-Muslims, poll tax on non-Muslims, 1/5 war booty and mineral extraction Also several controversial ‘customs’ taxes: became central issue lat 12th c. [Bennison p.210; also Discussion Docs]

27. Economy and Government also disputes over what was/was not ‘licit’ taxation on Agricultural produce Al-Andalusia: Ta’ifa Princes exercising excessive taxation, including taxing Muslims: had been central factor in appeal to Almoravids Almoravids responded: promised only ‘legal’ (canonical) taxes

28. Economy and Government But taxation principal source of Revenue: Even Almoravids forced to re-introduce non-canonical taxes to fund perpetual battles against Almohads in Maghreb and Christians in al-Andulusia contributed to downfall

29. Economy and Government Almohads made similar assertions, promises their definition of ‘legal’ was broader: moved away from strict Maliki law towards Mahdism But still forced to exceed ‘promises’: taxation remained central controversial factor in empire

30. Economy and Government Administration: Almoravids drew heavily on Andalusian officials even in Maghreb: one system from Cordoba to Sijilmassa Countered role of Sanhaja chiefs: they retained local political, military duties but Financial affairs in hands of appointed ‘overseer’ usually of Andalusian origin

31. Economy and Government Land Grants: Sanhaja chiefs benefited mostly from land grants: given usufruct rights – not inheritable He (or she) usually engaged their own tax collectors allowed Rulers to manage land at no cost while co-opting support

32. Economy and Government not as common in Maghreb as al-Andalusia but evidence shows Almoravids used system to reward military commanders Example given of Yusuf b. Tashfin: augmented army with Saharan trives (c.1077): granted them ‘provinces’ – lands in newly conquered areas Tlemcen, Fez

33. Economy and Government another example: Ta’ifa Princes from Seville, Granada who were ‘exiled’ to Aghmat: may have been allocated estates to support themselves Al-Andalus: when Almoravids moved into region, ousted Ta’ifs (as above): promised their own emirs land grants Also sold off land for benefit of public treasury

34. Economy and Government Example of Almoravids paying cavalry: account shows they were paid ‘5 dinars/month plus expenses plus fodder for their mounts But those who showed ‘nobility and courage’ were also rewarded with control of land and its revenues’ [land grants’

35. Economy and Government Almohad Administration: similar but more centralized Circulated upper administrative posts (e.g. governorships) to reduce emergence provincial autonomy Led to failure to remit full revenue to government

36. Economy and Government example: abd al-Mu’min did full census of North African territories to increase taxes Everyone had to pay extra tax on 2/3 of their productive land [irrespective as to whether it was being used] ‘team’ officials dealt with tax collection: unclear if Almohads retained use of official ‘overseer’

37. Economy and Government ‘audits’ frequent: caused much concern among those who attempted to siphoned off revenues meant for Marrakesh example of Historian who served as secretary to Yacub al-Mansour: managed some government revenues, royal lands in Seville area New governor appointed: audit undertaken

38. Economy and Government historian accused of retaining revenues for himself (and his son): summoned to Marrakesh Chronicle describes treatment on arrival [Bennison p.215]: all the loads he was bringing (for al-Mansour), all his own things – personal affects, records, money – taken from him Imprisoned for three days before being found ‘innocent’ and released

39. Economy and Government Bennison’s point: Story underscores how easily Caliph could and would appropriate goods Also included land grants themselves: fact that ‘state’ technically owned so much (according to Islamic Law) gave it the power to retake what it distributed more or less at will

40. Economy and Government Almohads: also used land-grant system Example given of Almohads using land grants to recruit soldiers from East: offered both land and monthly (as opposed to usual quarterly) salaries more centralized administration meant more control, quicker ‘appropriation’

41. Economy and Government Coinage: among of currency circulating controlled directly by state particular to Almoravids (and lesser extent Almohads) was access to Sub-Saharan gold [see video segment in Marrakesh bank vault] Almoravids began minting gold dinars following conquests of Sijilmassa and Awdaghust [sample shown in video]

42. Economy and Government minting ‘took off’ under Ibn Tashfin: authorized striking of dinars in Aghmat, later in Marrakesh, Fez, Tlemcen andNul Lamta Bennison points out: ‘this was in stark contrast to previous Umayyad and Fatimid states’

43. Economy and Government 1096 also began to mint coins in Seville In first decade Ali b. Yusuf’s reign:minting of al-Andalusia dinars peaked – ‘greatly more than production in Maghreb’ Why? North Africa more ‘transit-oriented’, al-Andalusia more ‘import-export’ oriented[Explanation: in context of Discussion Documents]

44. Economy and Government Almoravid dinars: ‘percolated throughout the Mediterranean world’ Also ‘most widely used and copied gold currency in Muslim and Christian areas’ [video mention dinar use in ‘London and China’ – might well have been copies] in currency system: supplemented by smaller silver, copper coins ‘for everyday use’

45. Economy and Government Almohads Also minted gold dinars but in much lower quantities – at peak less than half of Almoravid average output Leads Bennison to speculate that chronicles referring to salaries in terms of dinars may be using them as measure, that actual payment took place with dirhams – silver coins [again, see video segment on coinage]

46. Economy and Government Silver Coinage Marked Significant Change: suggesting that Almohads did not have as easy an access to Sudanese (sub-Saharan) gold as Almoravids had Sanhaja tribes continued to oppose Almohads on Saharan fringes of empire, affecting ability to successfully carry out trans-Saharan trade

47. Economy and Government ‘Fair Markets’: Bennison also speaks to state interest in, duty to, ensure markets functioned according to Islamic law: attracted commerce, raised tax revenue Describes number “market frauds” that could be contemporary (mixing poorer quality grain/flour with better quality; disguising cuts of meat etc)

48. Economy and Government Agricultural Research and Development: Interest in improving agriculture (including tree crops) came from al-Andalusia [here video incorrect in describing ‘gardens’ as reflecting desert Berber life] began with Umayyads, spread even under Ta’ifa Princes: established gardens, estates, orchards around provincial capitals

49. Economy and Government Purpose to improve soil conditions, create better fruit trees, develop grafting techniques …. So on “Agricultural Revolution”: continued throughout Almoravid and Almohad eras Seville main centrebut similar developments in Maghreb: projects outside of Marrakesh

50. Economy and Government Almohads: invested significantly in new set of irrigated estates: baha’is term usually means pool, lake: Almohad context meant both constructed resevoirs and entire irrigated orchard zone (olives, fruit trees)