Organic Chemistry

1. Organic Chemistry William H. Brown Christopher S. Foote Brent L. Iverson

3. Isomers Isomers: different compounds with the same molecular formula Constitutional isomers: isomers with a different connectivity Stereoisomers: isomers with the same connectivity but a different orientation of their atoms in space

4. Chirality Chiral: from the Greek, cheir, hand an object that is not superposable on its mirror image Achiral: an object that lacks chirality; one that lacks handedness an achiral object has at least one element of symmetry plane of symmetry: an imaginary plane passing through an object dividing it so that one half is the mirror image of the other half center of symmetry: a point so situated that identical components are located on opposite sides and equidistant from that point along the axis passing through it

5. Elements of Symmetry Symmetry in objects

6. Elements of Symmetry Plane of symmetry (cont�d)

7. Chiral Center The most common (but not the only) cause of chirality in organic molecules is a tetrahedral atom, most commonly carbon, bonded to four different groups A carbon with four different groups bonded to it is called a chiral center all chiral centers are stereocenters, but not all stereocenters are chiral centers (see Figure 3.5) Enantiomers: stereoisomers that are nonsuperposable mirror images refers to the relationship between pairs of objects

8. Enantiomers 2-Butanol has one chiral center here are four different representations for one enantiomer using (4) as a model, here are two different representations for the enantiomer of (4)

9. Enantiomers The enantiomers of lactic acid drawn in two different representations

10. Enantiomers 2-Chlorobutane

11. Enantiomers 3-Chlorocyclohexene

12. Enantiomers A nitrogen chiral center

13. R,S Convention Priority rules 1. Each atom bonded to the chiral center is assigned a priority based on atomic number; the higher the atomic number, the higher the priority 2. If priority cannot be assigned per the atoms bonded to the chiral center, look to the next set of atoms; priority is assigned at the first point of difference

14. R,S Convention 3. Atoms participating in a double or triple bond are considered to be bonded to an equivalent number of similar atoms by single bonds

15. Naming Chiral Centers 1. Locate the chiral center, identify its four substituents, and assign priority from 1 (highest) to 4 (lowest) to each substituent 2. Orient the molecule so that the group of lowest priority (4) is directed away from you 3. Read the three groups projecting toward you in order from highest (1) to lowest priority (3) 4. If the groups are read clockwise, the configuration is R; if they are read counterclockwise, the configuration is S (S)-2-Chlorobutane

16. Naming Chiral Centers (R)-3-Chlorocyclohexene (R)-Mevalonic acid

17. Enantiomers & Diastereomers For a molecule with 1 chiral center, 21 = 2 stereoisomers are possible For a molecule with 2 chiral centers, a maximum of 22 = 4 stereoisomers are possible For a molecule with n chiral centers, a maximum of 2n stereoisomers are possible

18. Enantiomers & Diastereomers 2,3,4-Trihydroxybutanal two chiral centers 22 = 4 stereoisomers exist; two pairs of enantiomers Diastereomers: stereoisomers that are not mirror images refers to the relationship among two or more objects

19. Enantiomers & Diastereomers 2,3-Dihydroxybutanedioic acid (tartaric acid) two chiral centers; 2n = 4, but only three stereoisomers exist Meso compound: an achiral compound possessing two or more chiral centers that also has chiral isomers

20. Enantiomers & Diastereomers 2-Methylcyclopentanol

21. Enantiomers & Diastereomers 1,2-Cyclopentanediol

22. Enantiomers & Diastereomers cis-3-Methylcyclohexanol

23. Enantiomers & Diastereomers trans-3-Methylcyclohexanol

24. Isomers

25. Properties of Stereoisomers Enantiomers have identical physical and chemical properties in achiral environments Diastereomers are different compounds and have different physical and chemical properties meso tartaric acid, for example, has different physical and chemical properties from its enantiomers (see Table 3.1)

26. Plane-Polarized Light Ordinary light: light vibrating in all planes perpendicular to its direction of propagation Plane-polarized light: light vibrating only in parallel planes Optically active: refers to a compound that rotates the plane of plane-polarized light

27. Plane-Polarized Light plane-polarized light is the vector sum of left and right circularly polarized light circularly polarized light reacts one way with an R chiral center, and the opposite way with its enantiomer the result of interaction of plane-polarized light with a chiral compound is rotation of the plane of polarization

28. Plane-Polarized Light Polarimeter: a device for measuring the extent of rotation of plane-polarized light

29. Optical Activity observed rotation: the number of degrees, ?, through which a compound rotates the plane of polarized light dextrorotatory (+): refers to a compound that rotates the plane of polarized light to the right levorotatory (-): refers to a compound that rotates of the plane of polarized light to the left specific rotation: observed rotation when a pure sample is placed in a tube 1.0 dm in length and concentration in g/mL (density); for a solution, concentration is expressed in g/ 100 mL

30. Optical Purity Optical purity: a way of describing the composition of a mixture of enantiomers Enantiomeric excess: the difference between the percentage of two enantiomers in a mixture optical purity is numerically equal to enantiomeric excess, but is experimentally determined

31. Enantiomeric Excess Example: a commercial synthesis of naproxen, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), gives the S enantiomer in 97% ee Calculate the percentages of the R and S enantiomers in this mixture

32. Resolution Racemic mixture: an equimolar mixture of two enantiomers because a racemic mixture contains equal numbers of dextrorotatory and levorotatory molecules, its specific rotation is zero Resolution: the separation of a racemic mixture into its enantiomers

33. Resolution One means of resolution is to convert the pair of enantiomers into two diastereomers diastereomers are different compounds and have different physical properties A common reaction for chemical resolution is salt formation after separation of the diastereomers, the enantiomerically pure acids are recovered

34. Resolution racemic acids can be resolved using commercially available chiral bases such as 1-phenylethanamine racemic bases can be resolved using chiral acids such as

36. Resolution Enzymes as resolving agents

37. Amino Acids the 20 most common amino acids have a central carbon, called an a-carbon, bonded to an NH2 group and a COOH group in 19 of the 20, the a-carbon is a chiral center 18 of the 19 a-carbons have the R configuration, one has the S configuration in the D,L system, all have the L configuration at neutral pH, an amino acid exists as an internal salt in this structural formula, the symbol R = a side chain

38. Proteins proteins are long chains of amino acids covalently bonded by amide bonds formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid

39. Chirality in the Biological World Except for inorganic salts and a few low-molecular-weight organic substances, the molecules of living systems are chiral Although these molecules can exist as a number of stereoisomers, generally only one is produced and used in a given biological system It�s a chiral world!

40. Chirality in the Biological World Consider chymotrypsin, a protein-digesting enzyme in the digestive system of animals chymotrypsin contains 251 chiral centers the maximum number of stereoisomers possible is 2251 there are only 238 stars in our galaxy!

41. Chirality in the Biological World Enzymes are like hands in a handshake the substrate fits into a binding site on the enzyme surface a left-handed molecule will only fit into a left-handed binding site and a right-handed molecule will only fit into a right-handed binding site enantiomers have different physiological properties because of the handedness of their interactions with other chiral molecules in living systems

42. Chirality in the Biological World a schematic diagram of an enzyme surface capable of binding with (R)-glyceraldehyde but not with (S)-glyceraldehyde

43. Stereoisomerism and Chirality