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Understand the importance of identifying a research problem and formulating a problem statement in scientific research. Learn about research topics, statements, purposes, goals, questions, and measurement techniques.
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Types of Research Problems Applied Theoretical
Research Topic • The broad general area expected to investigate. • It is a broad idea or concept from which many problems may be defined.
Research Problem • A situation or circumstance that requires a solution to be described, explained, or predicted. • It is an unsatisfactory situation that wants you to confront.
Research Problem • If there is a knowledge gap in an area that need to be investigated, the research problem identifies this gap. Where as the research topic is simply a broad area of interest, the research problem identifies what is problematic about that topic.
ResearchStatement • A statement specifies exactly what is being studied. • The research statement should include six elements: • Information about the research topic that provoked the study • The scope of the problem (e.g.. how many people are affected by it). • Why it is important to study the problem • How science would be influenced by the study • General characteristics of the population of interest • The overall goal or aim of the study or the question to be answered.
Example of a problem statement Hazardous noise is an important occupational health problem because it leads to hearing loss and may lead to increased stress and other deleterious physiological effects… More than 30 million workers are exposed to hazardous noise on the job…Use of hearing protection devices, specifically ear plugs is known to reduce noise exposure and prevent noise – induced hearing loss… there are, however, relatively few investigators who have examined factors related to the low use of hearing protection by workers.
Research Purpose • It is the specific aim or goal hope to be accomplished. It reflects “ why the problem is being studied” • Example of a purpose statement: • The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between nurse’s job satisfaction and tendency to leave.
Research Question Questions that are simple and direct invite an answer and help to focus attention on the kinds of data needed to provide that answer. Example of a research question: • What is the relationship between the nurses’ job satisfaction and their tendency to leave the work setting?
Constructs and Measurement • What do you want to know? • What are the variables? • How will you measure it? Examples: • behavior, • attitudes, • feelings, • demographics
Survey Error • Sampling Error – Who are you sampling? • Coverage Error – Does your list include everyone? • Measurement Error – Does everyone answer a question the same way? • Non-response Error – Why did respondent not answer: Instrument (whole questionnaire not returned) Item (question not answered)
Sampling Error • How much sampling error can you tolerate? • How large is the population? • How varied is the population? • How confident do you wish to be about estimates made from the sample? Sample size for a 95% confidence level And a + 5% sampling error.
Non Response Error • Only an issue if non responders would answer differently and change results compare early to late respondents double dip
What is a questionnaire? A series of questions. Gathers information from lots of people. Focussed around a single topic or area of interest.
Types of questionnaire No method consistently outperforms others
Considerations Your approach should take consideration of: • Your topic • Who you want survey • The type of information you want • Your budget • How quickly you need the information
Sample size vs Depth of info • Better response rates from interviewer-led surveys than from self-response surveys. • Self-response surveys are usually cheaper. • Interviewer-led surveys can produce richer information. • Self-response surveys can reach more people. Don’t confuse quantity for quality.
Question types • Open / closed • Single / multiple response • Attitudinal / opinion questions • Filtering / routing
Attitude/opinion • Can be difficult to get the phrasing of the question right so it means the same thing to all people. • Can be tempting to put lots of explanation into the question – but sometimes this just confuses things further. • Use clear, simple English/ language and avoid being too general. • Try not to ask ‘Iceberg’ questions.
Mid-point / neutral opinions Use mid-points in questions on attitude. • Historically controversial as it was thought that respondents chose a neutral option to avoid thinking about a question. • Now shown that including a mid-point increases reliability and validity Strongly disagree Strongly agree
‘How important?’ Following your visit to the clinic today, please rate the following – first based on your experience and second how important this is to you?
Common mistakes • What was the first drink you had today? • Tea • Coffee • Water • Juice • Haven’t had a drink today • Other (please state) What might be wrong with this question? Need to cover all options
Common mistakes What might be wrong with this question? What is your age group? Options should be mutually exclusive.
Common mistakes What might be wrong with this question? What did you think about the waiting time? Options should be balanced ‘Good’ responses ‘Bad’ response
Common mistakes What might be wrong with this question? How would you rate the appointment booking service using the: Use opt-out responses appropriately
Question wording • Keep questions as short as possible • Max 16 words. • Consider providing medium length (30 word) introductions to groups of related questions (context is vital!) • Use open-ended questions sparingly
Double questions Is space and storage adequate? ☐ Yes ☐ No Was the consent of the patient obtained and recorded? ☐ Yes ☐ No Was the consent of the patient: ☐ Obtained? ☐ Recorded? If a question can be broken down into parts then it should be?
Double negatives Do you think that it is an unwise policy to continue sending food aid to Africa. ☐ Yes ☐ No • If the respondent has to tick ‘No’ to give a positive response then this can be considered a double negative. • Try and phrase questions with a positive slant so that the positive response is ‘Yes’ rather than ‘No’.
Design • Use booklet format with double-sided printing • A4 folded to A5, or, A3 folded to A4 • Front cover: • The title of the questionnaire • Identity of the organisation carrying it out • Clearly explain the purpose of the questionnaire • Keep graphics neutral
Aesthetics • Arial font, size 12 point or larger • Questionnaire length • Shorter is generally better • Also keep plenty of ‘whitespace’ • Be consistent in the use of colour, shapes and location in order to guide the respondent through the questionnaire
Other elements to remember • Make it look professional. • Give an estimated completion time. • Put the deadline for return at the beginning and end of the questionnaire. • Provide a return address – on the questionnaire. • Say ‘Thank you’.
Ordering your questionnaire • Place easy, non-challenging questions first • Key filter questions should go in early. • Use a funnel structure • Go from basic to more in depth. • General questions before specific questions. • Go from the least sensitive to the most sensitive questions. • But – try and put important questions in before the end.
Ordering your questions • Ask for suggestions for improvement at the end. • Check for leading questions. • Add prompts where required. • Order of questions can impact heavily on the amount of time it takes for the respondent to complete the questionnaire.
Filtering • Filtering (or routing) helps identify which respondents should answer a detailed set of questions about a certain aspect of the topic. • Can be difficult to achieve – should be VERY CLEARLY signposted
Filtering Example ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Improving the response rate (1) • Shorter questionnaires • Good communication • Contact the respondents beforehand • Follow-up contact with non-responders • Monetary incentives • Personal touch • Handwritten address • Including respondent’s name in cover letter
Improving the response rate (2) • Method of delivery • Include a stamped return envelope • Send by first class or recorded delivery • University sponsorship can add credibility • Assure confidentiality
Pilot your tool • This is the MOST IMPORTANT part. • If a range of respondents from different backgrounds will be using the questionnaire make sure you use as many of these different groups as possible in the trial. • Go back to your objectives – does the data help you fulfil your objectives and measure against the standards you set?
Principles of Writing Questions I. Selection Categories Scales are always relative to respondent’s experience Scale should allow for maximum variability Use a balanced scale Be careful about responses of ‘neutral’ or ‘no opinion’ versus ‘don’t know’ Use item-in-a-series response categories carefully Place response categories vertically
Principles of Writing Questions II. Questions should ask for only 1 piece of information, so avoid: Asking two questions at once Asking questions that contain assumptions Asking questions that have hidden contingencies
Principles of Writing Questions III. A questionnaire gets people to express their feelings, perceptions, behaviors, and experiences, both past & present; therefore, avoid: Asking for secondhand information Asking hypothetical questions Asking about causation Asking for solutions to complex issues
Principles of Writing Questions IV. Question wording should ensure that every respondent will be answering the same thing, so avoid: Ambiguous wording or wording that means different things to different respondents Using terms for which the definition can vary. (If it is unavoidable, provide the respondent with a definition.) Being ambiguous about the time period the respondent should consider Asking complex questions (double-barreled)
