Instructional Designs: Theories into Programs

Instructional Designs: Theories into Programs Allison RossettSan Diego State University

Overview • Behavioral Approaches • Behavior Modification • Behavior Modeling • Cognitive Approaches • Conditions of Learning • Component Display Theory • Advance Organizer • Constructivism

Overview • Objectivism vs Constructivism • Humanistic Approaches • Cooperative Learning • Motivational Design • Adult Learning

What is behaviorism? • At the turn of the last century, William Wundt studied minds and learning through human introspection, asking what they were thinking • Behaviorism rose up in response. Focus on observable behaviors, stimulus conditions that control behaviors. Good for cats and rats, not particularly good for understanding reasoning and motivation in humans • Eventually behaviorism with a little ‘b’ evolved, with focus on observable behaviors and assumptions about internal states.

Behaviorism to ID? • Outcomes  objectives  items • Outcomes as drivers for design • Small bites of outcomes, each to learned individually • Positive reinforcement  behavior • Ignore behavior to reduce it • Lots of practice (emitting of behavior) • Programmed instruction is ancient and honored behaviorist approach, and it still lives

Behavior Modification • Focus on defined, tangible, target behaviors and how they are reinforced • Continuous reinforcers: all the time • Then ratio: every third time perhaps • Then random • Focus on the observable, with no attention to causes. Good if can manage the contingencies, but can’t always. Is it bribery? • Programs work for children for clsrm skills; work for adults for tardiness, smoking, to increase sales calls. • How might you use behavior mod to teach developmentally disabled youth to use the trolley?

Behavior Modeling • Presentation of a model and demonstration (clarity about optimals) w. skill practices • Based on social learning theory: we learn from imitating others • Goes right at the target behaviors associated with social and interpersonal problems-- lots of review and rehearsal, with progressively more realistic and complex situations • Confucious: “I hear and I forget; I see and I remember; I do and I understand”

What is cognitivism ? • Focus on what goes on in people’s minds • Two schools of thought: • Expository: builds heavily on behaviorism, but augments with newer cognitive constructs, especially human info processing. Telling and talking are often an important part of an expository cognitive approach. Remember the think aloud I did about orientation? Mneumonics are another example. • Discovery: more focus on the learning process itself, less on outcomes. Interest in self direction and social interaction. How about this experience?

Here are three expository programs…. • Conditions of learning • Component display • Advance organizer

1. Conditions of Learning • Predicated on both cognitive and behavioral antecedents, the assumption that different outcomes happen through different conditions • Domains of learning outcomes per Gagne • Verbal information: knowing that, facts, state caps • Intellectual skills: know how, classify, relate, deciding whether to write yourself or hire editor • Cognitive strategies: manage own thinking, create • Attitudes: choices as manifestation of attitudes • Motor skills: physical movements, fluency

Conditions of Learning Gagne’s Events of Instruction • Gain attention • Inform learners abt the objective • Stimulate recall of prior learning • Present content Show, explain, demo, highlight distinctive aspects • Provide learning guidance Organize, structure, link, tips, job aids • Elicit performance • Provide feedback • Assess performance again • Enhance retention and transfer

2. Component Display Theory • Like Gagne, strategies tied to outcomes • Focus on the cognitive • Examination of both the content type and the level of learner performance (use, remember, find) • Useful for generating design strategies, for building instruction to how to X or when to Y • 1/classify outcomes: fact, concept, procedure, or principle for the content AND remember, use or find • 2/assign strategies

Merrill’s perf/content matrix Remember Name the partsof the skin FACT CONCEPT PROCEDURE PRINCIPLE Use Find In battlefield,treat burns Explain the term,3rd degree burn Identify whichtype of burn it is State the stepsto dress a burn Dress a burn, given the type Improvise, ifnecessary matlsare missing Describe whyburns can be life threatening Treat/save under battleconditions Determine implic of burn treatments

What use is CDT? • How is it interesting? • How can you use it?

3. Advance Organizer • Focus is on establishing a cognitive structure or scaffolding for learners • Much learning through presentation/lecture, with emphasis on organization and meaning • Works particularly well for verbal learning, such as product knowledge • Key strategies (David Ausubel) • Establish an idea or structure that depicts, explains how the material fits together • Use visual or verbal representations, such as outlines, stories, diagrams, charts….

This is an advance organizer

Yup, this is an advance organizer • Cognitive Approaches • Conditions of Learning • Component Display Theory • Advance Organizer • Constructivism • Compared to objectivism • Cognitive constructivism • Socialcultural constructivism

Discovery via constructivist programs • Constructivist approaches, such as case based and problem based learning

Knowledge as objective reality Situate in real world Predefine the perspective Emphasis is on gaining content knowledge and skills We set objectives Evaluate against objectives Knowledge exists in the head Strip down at first Get it from multiple perspectives Focus on developing thinking and learning skills Objectives emerge Urge indiv goals, authenticity===> Objectivism Constructivism [after Falance, in Medsker (2001)]

Active cognitive reorganization Cases, examination of worked examples Focus on Grabinger’s REAL (real environm’ts, authentic learning) Emphasis is on individually constructing knowledge Acculturate into comm. of thought Social, cultural Focus on collaboration, interactions, culture, engagement Emphasis in on working together, to construct group view CognitiveSociocultural [after Burton et al, in Jonassen (1996)]

Think about it. • Let’s say you were charged with teaching pre-service teachers about technology, what it is and what it might mean in their classrooms. • How might constructivists see it differently than objectivists? How might a cognitive constructivist view it differently than a sociocultural constructivist? How would it influenceprograms that are delivered?

Overview • Humanistic Approaches • Cooperative Learning • Motivational Design • Adult Learning

Cooperative Learning • Focus on how people work with each other, on the skills and strategies associated with working in teams and groups. Interpersonal skills are critical to success. • Studies (Johnson & Johnson, 1989) have found many benefits to group work • Key strategies • Establish groups • Provide clear directions re processes and goal • Collaboration not competition

Motivational Design • John Keller’s ARCS (attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction) is not a stand- alone. Meant to augment other models. • Basis in expectancy value theory (Porter & Lawler, 1968): indivs are motivated when see worth and feel confidence! • Key strategies • A: perceptual and inquiry arousal, variability • R: show the relevance, match motives • C: link to prior, provide early successes • S: enable use and consequences

Adult Learning • Predicated on the work of Malcom Knowles • Tremendous respect for what individuals bring to the learning table • Typically • Problem based, not subject matter oriented • Relies upon a performance analysis and needs assessment • Links to prior successes and key concerns • Involves them in their own learning • Honors action, interaction, teams

Visit your assigned site-- use what we’ve talked about to identify theoretical underpinnings • http://www.froguts.comdissect and learn about frogs; and • http://elearning.hbsp.org/demos/negotiator/source/negotiation.html learn to negotiate • http://www.quia.com/cb/8111.htmlEnglish irregular verbs

Instructional Designs: Theories into Programs