Psychology 317 Chapter 12

1. Psychology 317 Chapter 12 Hallucinogens

2. Hallucinogens • Hallucinogens are a class of drugs that alter perceptual, cognitive and emotional states. • These drugs have been called hallucinogens, phantasticants, psychotomimetics, and psychedelics. • These drugs produce hallucinations and exert profound effects on mood, thinking processes, and psychological processes. • More than 90 plant species and many synthetic agents can produce these effects. • These drugs are divided into 4 groups based on their effects and mechanism of action • Serotonergic hallucinogens, methylated amphetamines, anticholinergic hallucinogens & dissociative anesthetics.

3. Serotonergic Hallucinogens • These include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), the prototype hallucinogen in this group. • It was synthesized in1938 by Albert Hoffman. • Drugs with effects similar to LSD were used for centuries, before the synthesis of LSD, by Central and South American Indians (psilocybin, mescaline). • One, ibogaine was discovered and used by Africans. • Spanish conquistadors who explored and colonized Mexico observed natives(Aztecs) use of hallucinogenic plants in religious ceremonies. • In 1577 Spanish Royal Physician, Fernando Hernandez, studied and wrote about peyote cactus (peyotl) psilocybe mushrooms (teonanacatl) and morning glory seeds (ololuiqui).

4. Serotonergic Hallucinogens continued • Each plant contained a different drug but all produced vivid visual hallucinations. • South American natives( Western Amazon of Brazil, Columbia, Peru, Equador, Bolivia) used two other hallucinogens harmine and harmaline from the bark and vines of Banisteropsis caapi and B. inebrians. • The local names of drinks made from the bark of vines are yage, pinde and dapa.

5. Serotonergic Hallucinogens continued • The plants are used in healing ceremonies, initiation rites, or other rituals. • Other hallucinogens use by the same S. American, Amazon natives include various species of the Virola tree • (Virola calophylla, V. calophylloidea, V. theiodora) • The tree bark, powered and sniffed (as snuff) contains the hallucinogens dimethyltryptamine (DMT). • DMT has shorter duration and was used at funeral ritual where powdered bones of deceased was consumed along with the snuff.

6. Recent History • European and American mainstream cultures knew little about hallucinogens until 1960s. • Albert Hoffman Swiss chemist at Sandoz Labs discovered LSD while studying derivatives of ergot, a fungus that infests grain. • The fungus occasionally caused outbreaks of disease in Medieval Europe when infected bread was eaten. • LSD was used in several animal studies, but showed no commercial use and was shelved. • Hoffman reexamined it in 1943; some spilled on his hand, got absorbed and Hoffman was the first person to experience the effects of LSD.

7. Recent History continued • Hoffman had a bizarre experience and decided to test an hypothesis that his experience was caused by LSD- He took LSD and had similar experiences again. • Sandoz distributed LSD to psychologists and psychiatrists for use as an adjunct to psychotherapy. • By 1960s LSD was tried by many and its popularity and publicity grew. • Timothy Leary on east coast and Ken Kesey on west coast advocated use and legalization of LSD. • By the 1960s 2 mil. reported trying LSD in US • LSD also became most controversial drug in the world.

8. Recent History continued • Negative publicity included: chromosomal damage, mutant children, insanity, suicide, violence, homicidal behavior. • LSD use declined in 1970s and 1980s • LSD and other hallucinogen use increased again in the1990s and peaked in 1996 • NIDA survey showed that I 8.8% reported using LSD and 1.8% high school seniors (NIDA). • Hallucinogens became associated with “club” or “rave” scene.

9. Recent History continued • MDMA (ecstasy) was also considered a prototypical club drug. • LSD and MDMA are both popular drugs but LSD more so • LSD use by 18 yr. olds was 48.6%, MDMA 32.3%. • LSD use by 18-32 yrs. 42.9%, MDMA 37.0%

10. Mechanism of Action of LSD-Like Drugs • LSD and other drugs in the class affect serotonin neurons. They are sympathomimetic drugs. • These drugs produce diverse psychological effects which include: Visual hallucination, alterations of mood and thought, and dreamlike visions. • LSD like drugs have been associated with many adverse effects including psychotic reactions (bad trips), flashbacks, and long-term psychological deficits.

11. Methylated Amphetamine • Methylated Amphetamine includes drugs such as MDA and MDMA (ecstasy), MDE • These drugs are sympathomimetics and they produce many LSD like effects but they do not produce visual hallucinations. • MDMA has become perhaps the most controversial illegal drug in the US today. • In 1996, 6.1% HS seniors reported having tried MDMA at least once. • By 2001 11.7% HS seniors reported having tried MDMA.

12. Methylated Amphetamine continued • Since then use has declined to pre 1996 levels. • Reason given for decline: publicity of MDMA adverse effects, brain damage, and death. • MDE, MDA and MDMA are similar and grouped together as DOM. • They are similar to mescaline and LSD. • Usually taken orally but can be injected or absorbed intranasally (snorted). • Absorbed rapidly & duration of action 6-8 hours.

13. Methylated Amphetamine continued • Have effects by releasing monoamines particularly serotonin & dopamine. • MDMA also blocks reuptake of 5-HT and DA to lesser extent. • They mimic sympathetic effect producing: increased heart rate, blood pressure, pupil dilation, muscle tension, teeth grinding, increased temperature, appetite suppression, and insomnia.

14. Methylated Amphetamine continued • Psychological effects include: euphoria, emotional warmth, empathy, lowered defensiveness, increased verbal behavior. • Toxic effects include: dehydration, heatstroke, heat exhaustion, muscle breakdown, kidney failure, stroke, seizures, heart attacks.

15. Anticholinergic Hallucinogens • Anticholinergic hallucinogens include atropine and scopolamine. • Found in plants such as belladonna (deadly nightshade) mandrake, henbane, jamison weed and datura. • These plants have been use before the birth of Christ, by ancient Greeks at the Oracle of Delphi, and by Middle Age witchcraft doctors. • They produce semisleep state marked by vivid visions and poor memory of drug experience later.

16. Dissociative Anesthetic Hallucinogens • Phencyclidine (PCP, Angel Dust) and Ketamine are dissociative anesthetic hallucinogens. • They produce potent intoxication at moderate doses, complete surgical anesthesia at higher doses. • PCP was synthesized in 1956 as an anesthetic. • PCP and Ketamine produced hyperexcitability, delirium, and visual disturbance in humans and was abandoned for human use. • They are marketed as anesthetic and tranquilizers in veterinary medicine. • PCP emerged as street drugs in 1970s (Angel dust, hog, horse tranquilizer, lovely)

17. Dissociative Anesthetic Hallucinogens continued • Used as sprinkled powder on cigarettes or marijuana joints. • Effects last 4-6 hrs- (“k-hole”) but variable • May produce seizures, prolonged coma, or death from respiration failure. • Produces bad trips in 56%-80% of users. • Produces toxic psychosis characterized by paranoia and sometimes violence that may last several days.