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Morphology

Morphology. I. Basic concepts and terms Derivational morphology : Derivational processes Inflectional morphology : Inflection Function words Problems in morphological description Interaction between morphology and phonology Collocations. Basic Concepts and Terms (1). Morphology:

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Morphology

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  1. Morphology I.Basic concepts and terms • Derivational morphology: Derivational processes • Inflectional morphology:Inflection • Function words • Problems in morphological description • Interaction between morphology and phonology • Collocations Yun-Pi Yuan

  2. Basic Concepts and Terms(1) Morphology: • The study of the structure of words & how words are formed (from morphemes) Morpheme: • The smallest unit of language that carries meaning (maybe a word or not a word) • A sound-meaning unit • A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function • The level of language at which sound and meaning combine A. Free morpheme: lexical & functional morpheme B. Bound morpheme: derivational & inflectional Yun-Pi Yuan

  3. Morphemes lexical free(open classes) Morphemesfunctional (closed classes) bound derivational inflectional (Yule 78) Yun-Pi Yuan

  4. Free Morpheme • Definition: can occur by itself, not attached to other morphemes • Examples: girl, teach, book, class, the, of, etc. • Two kinds A. lexical morpheme(open class) 1.feature:has lexical meaning; new examples can be freely added 2. examples:N, Verb, Adj, Adv (content words) B. functional morpheme (closed class) 1. feature:new examples are rarely added (but not impossible to add) 2. examples:Pro, Prep, Conj, Art. (function words) Yun-Pi Yuan

  5. Bound Morpheme I.Definition:must be attached to another morpheme II. Derivational morpheme • may change syntactic class • to form new (different) words • examples: -able, -ex, un-, re-, -ness, etc. III. Inflectional morpheme • Different forms of the same word (no new word added) • Not change syntactic class (nor adding lexical meaning) • To indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word • Only 8 kinds in English: -’s, -s (plural nouns), -ing, -ed/-en, -est, -er, -s (S-V agreement) Yun-Pi Yuan

  6. Exercise (1) • What’s the difference between the two morphemes “able” and “-able”? • able (adj. in “I’m able to do it”) • -able (e.g., “enjoyable”) • able  lexical (free) morpheme • -able  derivational morpheme Yun-Pi Yuan

  7. Basic Concepts and Terms(2) Stem (root, base): the morpheme to which other morphemes are added free (e.g.teacher, dresses, unkind) Stem bound (e.g. inept, unkempt, repeat) Yun-Pi Yuan

  8. Basic Concepts and Terms(3) Affix: Prefix e.g.unhappy Infix e.g. absogoddamlutely (see Yule 69: Kamhmu; Nash 56: Bontoc) Suffix e.g. happiness Yun-Pi Yuan

  9. Exercise (2) • Define all the terms in the Yule chart (p. 78), and give examples of each. • Identify all the morphemes in the sentence below, and label them as L (lexical), F (functional), D (derivational), or I (inflectional). Annie, a hard working learner, painstakingly checked her homework. Yun-Pi Yuan

  10. Derivational Morphology • Processes which form new words • Processes occur according to rules (which show the relation between words and provide ways to form new words) • Not all derivational rules have been figured out yet. Yun-Pi Yuan

  11. II. Derivational Processes:A Method to Get New Words 1. Derivation:(or Derivational affixation, Affixation) 2. Compounding: combine two or more morphemes to form new words 3.Reduplication: full or partial repetition of a morpheme 4. Blending: parts of the words that are combined are deleted 5. Clipping: part of a word has been clipped off 6. Acronyms: abbreviate a longer term by taking the initial letters 7. Back formation: A word (usually a noun) is reduced to form another word of a different type (usually a verb) 8. Extension of word formation rules: Part of a word is treated as a morpheme though it’s not 9. Functional shift (Conversion): A change in the part of speech 10. Proper names  Common words 11. Coining: Creating a completely new free morpheme 12. Onomatopoeia: words imitate sounds in nature 13. Borrowing: The taking over of words from other languages Yun-Pi Yuan

  12. 1. Derivation(1) • Derivation (also called derivational affixation or affixation): affixes are added to other morphemes; derived by rules (Nash 56; Yule 69)A.different rules, e.g. N V + affix worker V N + affix hospitalize V ADJ + affix activate ADJ N + affix national ADJ affix +ADJ unkind B. multiple combination of rules e.g. organizational Yun-Pi Yuan

  13. 1. Derivation (2) Tree structure of “organizational” ADJ N Affix V Affix N Affix organ ize ation al Yun-Pi Yuan

  14. 2. Compounding (1) • Compounding (compounds): combining two or more free morphemes (roots) to form new words N N N N N ADJ N N N ADJ N V N V fire engine greenhouse jumpsuit P wall paper bluebird killjoy book case N textbook P N afterthought outpatient in-laws Yun-Pi Yuan

  15. 2. Compounding (2) N ADJ ADJ ADJ P ADJ ADJ ADJ N ADJ ADJ ADJ P ADJ nation-wide red - hot overripe sky blue far - fetched ingrown pitch-black outspoken (pitch-dark) outstanding Yun-Pi Yuan

  16. 2. Compounding (3) N V ADJ V P V V V V V N V ADJ V P V V V Spoon-feed whitewash outlive blow-dry Steam-roller dry-clean underestimate breakdance Yun-Pi Yuan

  17. 2. Compounding (4) N N N N N N N N N N N N dog food box stone age cave man (repeated application of the rule that allows a noun to branch into two nouns.) Yun-Pi Yuan

  18. 2. Compounding (5) • Eng. orthography not consistent in representing compounds • Written as single words • Written with a hyphen • Written as separate words • Possible to recognize noun compounds by stress pattern (an e.g. of interaction between morphology and phonology) • greenhouse vs. green house; hot dog vs. hot dog Yun-Pi Yuan

  19. 2. Compounding (6) • Some Chinese examples: • 汽車、火車 • 馬車、牛車 • 機車、貨車 • 腳踏車、三輪車 (Nash 57) Yun-Pi Yuan

  20. 3.Reduplication • Reduplication: fullor partial repetitionof a free morpheme; sometimeswith variation full partialwith variation so-so 一點點 zigzag bye-bye冷冰冰 dilly-dally 天天.人人 蹦蹦跳 hotchpotch 來來.往往 hodgepodge 點點.滴滴 mishmash 卿卿我我 (Nash 57 for more examples) Yun-Pi Yuan

  21. 4. Blending (1) • Blending (blends): similar to compounding, but some parts of the free morphemes involved are lost (usually keeping 1st part of 1st word + end of 2nd word) e.g. brunch breakfast+ lunch smog smoke+ fog motel motor+ hotel Yun-Pi Yuan

  22. 4. Blending (2) newscast news + broadcast telex teleprinter + exchange bit binary + digit Reaganomics Reagan + economics fantabulous fantastic + fabulous Yun-Pi Yuan

  23. 5. Clipping • Clipping (clipped forms): part of a free morpheme is cut off (i.e., shortening a polysyllabic word); often in casual speech e.g. prof. math gas (also in names) phys-ed lab dorm Liz ad bike flu Kathy poli-sci porn fax Ron doc sub lit., ling. Lyn Yun-Pi Yuan

  24. 6. Acronyms (1) • Acronyms: abbreviate a longer term by taking the initial letters A. follow the pronunciation patterns of Eng. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) TOEFL (Test of Eng. as a Foreign Language) AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) NASA (National Aeronautics & Space Administration) UFO ( ? ) Yun-Pi Yuan

  25. 6. Acronyms (2) B. If unpronounceable  each letter is sounded out separately ATM (automatic teller machine) I.Q. (intelligence quotient) MRT (Mass Rapid Transit) MTV (music television) VCR (video cassette recorder) TGIF ( ? ); ASAP ( ? ) WYSIWYG ( ? ) Yun-Pi Yuan

  26. 6. Acronyms (3) C. Customary to sound out each letter even if the combined initials can be pronounced. AIT American Institute in Taiwan UCLA The University of California at Los Angeles Yun-Pi Yuan

  27. 6. Acronyms (4) • Acronyms lose their capitals to become everyday terms: • laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) • radar (radio detecting and ranging) • zip (zone improvement plan) (Yule 68) Yun-Pi Yuan

  28. 7. Back formation (1) • Back formation: A word (usually a noun) is reduced to form another word of a different type (usually a verb)—Yule 67 • It starts with an existing word and forms “backwards,” by taking off what appears to be a suffix but really is not, resulting a new word thought already to exist (Nash 59). • A “mistake” based on the similarity of an existing free morpheme to some (originally uninvolved) morphological process Yun-Pi Yuan

  29. 7. Back formation (2) e.g. editor edit donation donate burglar burgle zipper zip television televise babysitter baby sit Note: derivational affixation: teach teacher back formation: editor edit Yun-Pi Yuan

  30. 8. Extension of word formation rules • Extension of word formation rules: Part of a word is treated as a morpheme though it’s not burger(mar)athona(lco)holic hamburgertelethon workaholic cheese burger danceathon buffalo burger walkathon fish burger vege burger tofu burger Yun-Pi Yuan

  31. 9. Functional shift (Conversion) • Functional shift (or conversion, category change): A change in the part of speech V N a guess, a must, a spy, a printout, walk, run, laugh, touch N V position, process, contact, notice, party, fax, butter, bottle (computer-related terms) input, output, format V ADJ see-through, a stand-up comedian Yun-Pi Yuan

  32. 10. Proper names common words (1) • Proper names  Common words A. People jacklumberjack, jack of all trades tomtomcat, tomboy, peeping Tom 阿花 (三八阿花) B. Real people Earl of Sandwich, teddy bear, Marquis de Sade  sadism, sadist; 杜康 Yun-Pi Yuan

  33. 10. Proper names (2) C. Places Hamburger, marathon, bikini, Shanghai, champagne, cognac, 香港腳, 蒙古大夫, 哈蜜瓜 D. Mythology Tantalus  tantalize Eros erotic; Narcissus narcissistic Mars martial psyche, panic, Echo E. Brand names band-aid, zipper, Xerox, coke, Scotch tape, Kleenex, Vaseline, 生力麵 Yun-Pi Yuan

  34. 11. Coining • Coining (Coinage): Creating a completely new free morpheme, which is unrelated to any existing morphemes; a rare thing e.g. googol, pooch,Nylon Note 1: “Kleenex,” “teflon” are not really coinages (according to Nash’s definition) though Yule puts them under this category “Aspirin” (might have relation to chemical name) and “Xerox” (which might come from Greek) and “vaseline” are also questionable. Note 2: everyday usage of “coining”  linguistic definition of “coining” Yun-Pi Yuan

  35. 12. Onomatopoeia • Onomatopoeia: words imitate sounds in nature (or in technology), but need to conform to phonological system of the language • A dog:bow wow or woof-woof, 汪汪 • A clock: tick-tock, 滴答 • A rooster:cock-a-doodle-doo 咕咕咕 • A camera: click, 喀擦 • A duck: quack 嘎嘎 • A cat: meow 喵喵 • Ring of a bell: ding-dong, 叮咚 • A cow: moo, 哞哞 • A bee: buzz, 嗡嗡 • A snake: hiss, 嘶嘶 Yun-Pi Yuan

  36. 13. Borrowing • Borrowing (Borrowed words or loan-words): the taking over of words from other languages A. Loan translation (or calque): direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language (Yule 65) • hot dog 熱狗 • superman 超人 B. Transliteration • cool 酷 • DINK 頂客 • YUPPIE 雅痞 Yun-Pi Yuan

  37. III. Inflection (1) • Inflectional morphology:adds grammatical functions (i.e., number, tense, aspect, gender, case), so related to syntax, but does not create new words (so not related to the lexicon). • Eng.: inflections (8 kinds) are all suffixes • Other languages (e.g.of prefixes & infixes): • Quiche (spoken in Mexico): prefixes for tense Yun-Pi Yuan

  38. III. Inflection (2) b. Ganda (language spoken in Uganda):(Yule 80) omu- (inflectional prefix) + singular noun aba- (inflectional prefix) + plural noun e.g., omusawo (doctor) abasawo (doctors) omukazi (woman) abakazi (women) c. Swahili (spoken in east Africa): (Nash 66) prefixes added to verbs to show person & tense ni-na-soma “I am reading” (na- present tense) u-na-soma “You are reading” a-na-soma “He is reading” Yun-Pi Yuan

  39. III. Inflection (3) ni-li-soma “I was reading” (li- past tense) u-li-soma “You were reading” a-li-soma “He was reading” ni-ta-soma “I will read” (ta- future tense) u-ta-soma “You will read” a-ta-soma “He will read” d. Tagalog (a lang. of the Philippines) (Yule 81) Infixes: partial reduplication (of 1st syllable) for future tense e.g.,basa “read’ bili “buy” sulat “write” babasa “will read” bibili “will buy” susulat “will write” Yun-Pi Yuan

  40. III. Inflection (4) e. Ilocano (a lang. of the Philippines) (Yule 81) infixes: partial reduplication for plural nouns e.g., ulo “head” ululo “heads” dalan “road” daldalan “roads’ biag “life” bibiag “lives” mula “plant” mulmula “plants” Yun-Pi Yuan

  41. III. Inflection (5) Inflections on a word influence syntactic choices in other parts of a sentence • That planter grows. . . . • Those planters grow. . . . • Basic word structure in English: (DER) Base (DER) (INFL) e.g. planter s planters unorganizeed unorganized Yun-Pi Yuan

  42. III. Inflection (6) • A problem in analysis: Mandarin inflectional/functional “了”: • Inflectional: • Perfective aspect: 怎麼碰了杯子也不喝？ • Functional: • Sentence final particle: 他胖起來了 把球拿走了 Yun-Pi Yuan

  43. IV. Function Words • Free functional morphemes • Definition: (Nash 64) • A list of function words in Eng: (Nash 65) • More than inflections • Eng. And Chinese tend to isolate grammatical functions out into free morphemes • 杯子在桌子上 • Some other langs. tend to use bound (inflectional) morphemes • e.g., Russian (Nash 12), Swahili (Nash 66) Yun-Pi Yuan

  44. V. Problems in Morphological Description • Bound stem receive, unkempt, inept; cranberry? Huckleberry? • Unidentifiable or inseparable elements • Due to historical influences and borrowing: A. Plural form: • sheep  sheep; man  men B. Past tense: • read  read; go  went C. Noun  ADJ: • law (old Norse into old Eng)  legal (from Latin) • mouth(old Eng.)  oral (Latin) (Yulee 79) Yun-Pi Yuan

  45. VI. Interaction Between Morphology and Phonology (1) • Past tense in English (inflection) past tense morpheme/d/=allomorphs {d, t, Id} 1. Verbs ends in +voiced /d/ • e.g. agreed, dragged 2. Verbs ends in -voiced /t/ • e.g. worked, missed 3. Verbs ends in alveolar stop /Id/ • e.g., loaded, estimated Yun-Pi Yuan

  46. VI. Interaction Between Morphology and Phonology (2) B. Plural form (inflection) plural morpheme /z/=allomorphs {z, s, Iz} 1.Noun ends in+voiced/z/ e.g. flags, games 2. Noun ends in-voiced/s/ e.g. maps, banks 3. ends in+sibilant/Iz/ e.g. glasses, watches C. Negative(Nash 51) /In/ = {In, I} Yun-Pi Yuan

  47. VI. Interaction Between Morphology and Phonology (3) • Morphophonemic Rules: The rules that determine the pronunciation of the regular past tense, plural morphemes, and negative prefix are called morphophonemic rules becausemorphologyadds the affix to the root, and thephonologycontrols the pronunciation of the affix (morpheme). Yun-Pi Yuan

  48. VII. Collocations A. Definition: combinations of words stored as whole units in the brain, like one big word; So, unnecessary to be put together using syntax—can be called up for use all at once. B. Examples: and (fork, knife, bread, pepper, salt, butter) harm; business; a mistake How’re you? How do you do? Nice to meet you. I’m so glad you could bring Pamela. * That Pamela could be brought by you makes me so glad. * That you could bring Pamela makes me so glad. * I’m so glad Pamela’s being brought by you was possible. Yun-Pi Yuan

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