Do We Have an Achievement Gap, or is it Really an Instructional Gap?

1. Do We Have an Achievement Gap, or is it Really an Instructional Gap?

2. Achievement is Up, But Gaps Remain Although there have been some improvements in mathematics and science for 4th and 8th graders, the achievement gap has stayed constant or widened since 1990. National Center for Education Statistics. (2005). NAEP trends. U.S. Department of Education, National Assessment of Educational Progress. http://nces.ed.gov

3. The foremost explanations given for achievement differentials today are: Cultural and/or Class Poverty Student Oppositional Identity & Alienation Deficit Theories Low Teacher Expectancy Wiggan, G. (2007). Race, school achievement, and educational inequality: Toward a student-based inquiry perspective. Review of Educational Research, 77(3), 310-333.

4. The Achievement Gap It could be that the central issue pertaining to student achievement might have to do with differential quality of education, which reproduces social and economic inequality. Wiggan, G. (2007). Race, school achievement, and educational inequality: Toward a student-based inquiry perspective. Review of Educational Research, 77(3), 310-333.

5. The Achievement Triangle Teaching Achievement Curriculum/Policies Culture/Economics

6. Opportunity to Learn Opportunity to learn is widely considered the single most important predictor of student achievement. Defined by the National Research Council as “circumstances that allow students to engage in and spend time on academic tasks …” (p. 333). National Research Council. (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. J. Kilpatrick, J. Swafford, & B. Findell (Eds.). Mathematics Learning Study Committee, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

7. Opportunity to Learn – Two Distinct Aspects • Curriculum Policy and Students’ Course-Taking Options – How much math and which courses. • How much thinking is called for in the classroom? – the cognitive demand of the learning tasks. AERA. (2006). Do the math: Cognitive demand makes a difference. Research Points: Essential Information for Education Policy, 4(2).

8. Curriculum Policy and Students’ Course-Taking Options

9. Closing the Achievement Gap – Policies and Practices In the United States, much of the educational research has attributed differences among ethnic groups’ academic achievement to race and socioeconomic status. In contrast, other countries cite content coverage [opportunity to learn] as the major contributor of differential achievement. Stevens, F. I. (2003). Implementing opportunity-to-learn assessment strategies and standards. In B. Williams (Ed.), Closing the achievement gap: A vision for changing beliefs and practices (pp.25-47). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

10. Ability Grouping Beyond Gifted/AP Exacerbates the GAP Numerous studies have found minimal effects for most forms of ability grouping … and special education. A major issue is whether students in these categories, groupings, and tracks have equal access to high-quality curriculum, teachers, and learning experiences. Manning, J. B., & Kovach, J. A. (2003). The continuing challenges of excellence and equity. In B. Williams (Ed.), Closing the achievement gap: A vision for changing beliefs and practices (pp.25-47). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

11. Eliminating Low-Level Courses Some school districts that have adopted a policy that all ninth-graders take algebra typically have eliminated general mathematics, consumer mathematics, and pre-algebra courses. Research suggests that this is a positive step toward raising standards for all students, and a direction that should lead to greater equity for students who have traditionally (and disproportionately) occupied the lower-level courses. RAND Mathematics Study Panel. (2003). Mathematics proficiency for all students: Toward a strategic research and development program in mathematics education. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.

12. Tracking Persists in New Forms Although many schools have done away with traditional three-track sorting, hidden forms of tracking persist. In one common situation, students are divided by perceived ability under the same course label. For example, an algebra course might sort students into fast and slow speeds of learning, so that by the end of the year students in the same class have not had the same opportunity to learn. AERA. (2006). Do the math: Cognitive demand makes a difference. Research Points: Essential Information for Education Policy, 4(2).

13. Slowing Down the Opportunity to Learn Does not Work Slowing down student course-taking is what average-impact schools typically do, but it limits their ability to continue in the college prep course of study and keeps them from catching up. Education Trust. (2005). Gaining traction, gaining ground: How some high schools accelerate learning for struggling students. Washington, DC: Education Trust.

14. We Need to Learn to Intervene without Slowing Down Interventions must combine practice in material not yet mastered with instruction in new areas … Yet the need for remediation cannot be allowed to exclude these students from instruction in new ideas … It is perfectly appropriate, even advisable, to group those students who do not understand a concept or skill, find the time to reteach the concept or skill, and provide additional practice. At the same time those students should be participating with a more heterogeneous mix of students in regular classroom instruction. Curriculum Development and Supplemental Materials Commission. (2006). Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools Kindergarten through Grade Twelve (2005 edition). Sacramento, CA: California Department of Education.

15. Instructional Interventions that Make a Difference Frequent monitoring (at least weekly) of student progress. Results of frequent assessment are used to form small groups of students for instruction, practice, and reinforcement in the skills and concepts with which they are struggling. Small group support takes place in addition to whole class instruction. Baker, S., & Gersten, R., & Lee, D. (2002). A synthesis of empirical research on teaching mathematics to low-achieving students. The Elementary School Journal, 103(1), 51-73.

16. “Level Up” and Accelerate A longitudinal study of over 1,000 low-achieving and at-risk 6-8 grade students found that students placed in heterogeneous “universal acceleration” courses with “workshop” support had greater gains in achievement and continued to enroll in upper level math courses at greater rates than those placed in traditional remedial courses that slowed down instruction. This finding confirms earlier studies at the elementary level. Burris, C.C., Heubert, J.P., & Levin, H.M. (2006). Accelerating mathematics achievement using heterogeneous grouping. American Educational Research Journal, 43(1), 105-136 . Bloom, H.S., Ham, S., Melton, L., & O’Brient, J. (2001). Evaluating the accelerated schools approach: A look at early implementation and impacts on student achievement in eight elementary schools. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation. Finnan, C., & Swanson, J.D. (2000). Accelerating the learning of all students. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Levin, H. M. (1997). Raising school productivity: An x-efficiency approach. Economics of Education Review, 16, 303-312.

17. The New 3-Rs – Reteaching, Relearning, Reassessing In effective schools one of the most consistent practices of successful teachers is the provision of multiple opportunities to learn … The consequences for a student who fails to meet a standard is not a low grade but rather the opportunity, indeed the requirement to resubmit his or her work. Reeves, D., “Standards are Not Enough: Essential Transformations for School Success.” NASSP Bulletin, Dec. 2000, 11.

18. Time Must Become the Variable, Not Learning Time and support must become variables. Some students will require more time to learn, and so the school must develop strategies to provide students with that time during the school day. Some students will require more support for learning. They may never learn the concept in the classroom setting, and so the school must develop systems to provide them with small group or one-on-one tutorials until they have achieved mastery. DuFour, R., DuFour, R., Eaker, R., & Karhanek, G.. (2004). Whatever it takes: How professional learning communities respond when kids don’t learn. Bloomington, IN: National Education Service. p. 35.

19. Achievement Gaps are a Function of Course Taking When African American and White students complete the same mathematics courses, the differences in average achievement gains are statistically insignificant. Additionally, there are no statistically significant differences in achievement between high- and low-SES students who complete the same courses. Hoffer, T. B., Rasinski, K. A., & Moore, W. (1995). Social background differences in high school mathematics and science coursetaking and achievement. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

20. The Importance of Persisting in the Curriculum Of all pre-college curricula, the highest level of mathematics in secondary school has the strongest continuing influence on bachelor’s degree completion. Finishing a course beyond Algebra 2 more than doubles the odds that a student who enters post-secondary education will complete a bachelor’s degree. Adelman, C. (1999). Answers in the toolbox: academic intensity, attendance patterns, and bachelor’s degree attainment. (Office of Educational Research and Improvement Publication.) http://www.ed.gov/pubs/Toolbox/Title.html

21. Creating Opportunity Students whose parents did not attend college more than doubled their chances of enrolling in 4-year colleges if they took high school mathematics courses beyond Algebra 2. Horn, L., & Nunez, A. (2000). Mapping the road to college: First-generation students’ mathematics track, planning strategies and context support. (NCES Publication No. 2000-153). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education.

22. Never Has it Been More Essential that We Address the Gap

23. The Future of the Society we Live in Depends More than Ever on Reaching All Students Because the economy can no longer absorb unskilled workers at decent wages, lack of education is increasingly linked to crime and welfare dependency …no society in a knowledge-based world can long prosper without supporting a thinking education for all its people. A societal infrastructure disintegrates, both economically and socially, when large numbers of individuals cannot become productive citizens. Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). 2006 DeWitt Wallace-Reader’s Digest Distinguished Lecture – Securing the right to learn: Policy and practice for powerful teaching and learning. Educational Researcher, 35(7), 13-24.

24. Our Future Our future will be increasingly determined by our capacity and our will to educate all children well – a challenge we have very little time to meet if the United States is not to enact the modern equivalent of the fall of Rome. Darling-Hammond, L. (2007). The flat earth and education: How America’s commitment to equity will determine our future. Educational Researcher, 36(6), 318-334.

25. Instructional Gap It’s Not What You Say, It’s What People Hear Achievement Gap Luntz, F. (2007). Words that work: It’s not what you say, it’s what people hear. New York: Hyperion.

26. We Know What Makes a Difference Despite ongoing hand-wringing about the persistence of the achievement gap, much is known about critical components of schools that make a difference in achievement. These include … access to challenging curriculum, which ultimately determines a greater quotient of students’ achievement than their initial ability levels; and schools and classes that are organized so that students are well known and well supported. Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). 2006 DeWitt Wallace-Reader’s Digest Distinguished Lecture – Securing the right to learn: Policy and practice for powerful teaching and learning. Educational Researcher, 35(7), 13-24.