SOCIAL PERCEPTION

1. SOCIAL PERCEPTION • Social Cognition • Social Perception • Attribution • Communication • Autonomy, temperament and personality

2. SOCIAL COGNITION The way in which we interpret, analyze, remember and use information about social world to make judgments and decisions

3. CATEGORIZATION CREATURES • Social categorization • The process of forming categories of people based on their common attributes • Prototype • The most representative member of category • Stereotype • Assume a correlations between a person’s group membership and their characteristics

4. THE GOALS OF SOCIAL COGNITION • People want to find the right answer to some problems or question. • e.g. what the best thing to do • To confirm the desired answer to a problem • e.g. they are not responsible for some particular disaster • To reach a pretty good answer or decision quickly • e.g. choose the best book

5. CONSERVING MENTAL EFFORT The Complex, Information- Rich Social World The Limited Human Attentional Capacity Goal of Conserving Mental Effort Simplification Strategies Expectations Dispositional Inferences Other Cognitive Shortcut: Representative Heuristic Availability Heuristic Anchoring & Adjustment Heuristic Figure 2.1: Keeping it simple The information-rich social environment, together with our limited attentional resources, creates the need for simplifying, low effort cognitive strategies that nonetheless let us form impressions and make decision that are good enough

6. EXPECTATION • What we may expect from the people and situations around us may help us to understand the people and events around us.

7. DISPOSITIONAL INFERENCE • The judgment that a person’s behavior has been caused by an aspect of that person’s personality

8. REPRESENTATIVENESSHEURISTIC • A mental shortcut through which people classify something as belonging to a certain category to the extent that it is similar to a typical case from that category

9. Availability Heuristic • A mental shortcut through which one estimates the likelihood of an event by the ease with which instances of that event come to mind

10. Anchoring and adjustment heuristics • A mental shortcut through which people begin with a rough estimation as starting point and then adjust this estimate to take into account unique characteristics of the present situation.

11. SCHEMAS • Knowledge structures that represent substantial information about concept, its attributes, and its relationships to other concepts • e.g. Professor: role, research process, attributes • It affect what information we notice and later remember

12. SCHEMAS • Gender schema • A cognitive structure for processing information based on its perceived female or male qualities • Script • A schema that describe how a series of events is likely to occur in a well known situation, and that is used as a guide for behavior and problem solving • e.g. attending class, eating dinner at restaurant

13. 1. Hostess greet person 2. Hostess seats person 3. Person pays for food 4. Person orders food from waiter 5. A person enters a restaurant 6. Person looks at menu 7. Person leaves restaurant 8. Person eats food One example of a script is a restaurant script. Try putting the frames above in the correct order

14. SCHEMAS 2 types of schemas applied to people IMPLICIT PERSONALITY THEORY Assumptions or naive belief systems people make about which personality traits and behaviors go together STEREOTYPES -Influence how we process and interpret information

15. SCHEMAS • Priming -The process by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a scheme, trait or concept • Framing -whether messages stress potential gains (positively framed) or potential losses (negatively framed)

16. Social Perception • The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people • Impression formation is a process of organizing diverse information into a unified impression of other person

17. Social Perception • Information about other people comes from various sources: e.g. reading, third party, witness from afar, interact directly

18. ATTRIBUTIONS

19. ATTRIBUTION The process by which people use information to make inferences about the causes of behavior or events INTERNAL ATTRIBUTION An attribution that locates the cause of event to factors internal to the person, such as personality traits, moods, attitudes, abilities, or effort EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTION An attribution that locates the cause of an event to factors external to the person, such as luck, or other people, or the situation

20. ATTRIBUTES • Bernard Weiner (1971) proposed a two dimensional theory of attributions for success and failure. Internal External Stable Unstable

21. THE COVARIATION MODEL • Covariation principle - for something to be the cause of a behavior, it must be present when the behavior occurs and absent when the behavior does not occur • Consencus information - Information about the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does

22. THE COVARIATION MODEL • Distinctivesness information • Information about the extents to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli • Consistency Information • Information about the extent to which the behavior between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumtances

23. Table 2.1: Kelley’s attribution cube, in which attributions are based on three dimensions (hence the term cube): consensus, consistency and distinctiveness

24. BIASESS IN THE ATTRIBUTION PROCESS • Fundamental Attribution Error • The tendency to overestimate the extent to which people’s behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors

25. Perceptual Salience • The seeming importance of information that is the focus of people’s attention

26. Figure 2.2: This is the setting arrangement for two actors and the six research participants in the Taylor and Fiske study. Participants rated each actor’s impact on the conversation. Researches found that people rated the actor they could see most clearly as having the largest role in the conversation

27. The two-Step process of Making Attributions • Analyzing another person’s behavior first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situational reasons for the behavior, after which one may adjust the original internal contribution

28. Figure 2.3 : The two-steps process of attribution

29. Actor-Observer Difference • Is the qualification of the fundamental error • The tendency to see other people’s behavior as dispositionally caused but focusing more on the role of situational factors when explaining one’s own behavior

30. COMMUNICATION • that communication consists of transmitting information from one person to another

31. COMMUNICATION • There are three major parts in human face to face communication which are body language, voice tonality, and words. • According to the research: • 55% of impact is determined by body language—postures, gestures, and eye contact, • 38% by the tone of voice, and • 7% by the content or the words

32. VERBAL COMMUNICATION • A dialogue is a reciprocal conversation between two or more entities.

33. Nonverbal Communication • The way in which people communicate intentionally or unintentionally, without words • Nonverbal cues include facial expression, tone of voice, gesture, body position and movement, the use of touch and gaze

34. The primary use of nonverbal behavior • Expressing emotion (I’m angry-eyes narrow, eyebrows lower, stare intently) • Conveying attitudes (I like you- smiles, extended eye contact) • Communicating one’s personality (I’m going – broad gesture, an energetic tone of voice) • Facilitating verbal communication (lower voice and look away as you finish your sentence)

35. Anger Fear Disgusting sadness Happiness Surprise

36. AUTONOMY

37. AUTONOMY • In Greek, the word nomos meaning “law”, i.e. one who gives oneself his/her own law is the right to self-government. • Self-government with respect to local or internal affairs: granted autonomy to a national minority • Autonomy is a concept found in moral, political and bioethical philosophy

38. AUTONOMY • A person who is independence is said to have the quality of being autonomous • An autonomous person is also said to have self-determination or the right of the self-government

39. WHAT IS AUTONOMY? AUTONOMY REFERS TO THE CAPACITY OF A RATIONAL INDIVIDUAL TO MAKE AN INFORMED, UNCOERCED DECISION

40. AUTONOMY • Autonomy means that each person should be given the respect, time and opportunity necessary to make his or her own decision

41. The word autonomy has several usages in philosophical contexts

42. In ethics, autonomy refers to a person’s capacity for self-determination in the context of moral choices • Kant argued that autonomy is demonstrated by a person who decides on a course of action out of respect for moral duty • That is, an autonomous person acts morally solely for the sake of doing “good”, independently of other incentives • In metaphysical philosophy, the concept of autonomy is referenced in discussions about free will, fatalism, determinism and agency

43. Restrictions on autonomy • Autonomy can be, and usually is to one extent or another, waived to another authority, such as by agreeing to follow governing laws • The action available to an autonomous unit can be restricted by a more powerful authority, such as when a cattlemen sets a fence around his herd, or court sentences a criminal to prison

44. Restrictions on autonomy • The decisions of an autonomous unit can be coerced, and its action forced • Autonomy can be restricted through the aspect of the ability to act, as in the case of a newborn or through the aspect of the ability to decide as in the case of person in a coma

45. What is the principle of autonomy? • The principle of autonomy has come to occupy a preeminent position in healthcare in only the last two generations. • This principle may be formulated in the following way: • A person should be free to perform whatever action he/she wishes, regardless of risks or foolishness as perceived by others, provided it does not impinge on the autonomy of others • This principle gives ultimate control (self-governance) for a moral action to the agent who is making the decision to perform the action

46. How does the principle of autonomy relate the notion of patient dignity? • Autonomy is a principle of moral empowerment and places the responsibility for the consequences of an action on moral agents themselves • Someone acting on the principle of autonomy cannot legitimately blame another for adverse consequences

47. How does the principle of autonomy relate the notion of patient dignity? • Taking responsibility for one’s actions is a central feature of personal dignity • The perceptions of others are not sufficient warrant to stop an autonomous action

48. ISSUES OF AUTONOMY SOCIAL EVOLUTION QUESTION Can social psychology help humanity to understand and adjust to the current human and environmental challenges?

49. WHAT IS TEMPERAMENT? TEMPERAMANT is the patterns of arousal and emotionality that are consistent and enduring characteristics of an individual

50. WHAT IS TEMPERAMENT • Individual differences in human motivation and emotion that appear early in life, usually thought to be biological in origin. • Temperament is sometimes considered the biological or physiological component of personality, which refers to the sum total of the physical, emotional, mental, spiritual, and social dimensions of an individual.