Morphology

1. Morphology Morphology and Word Formation

2. Definition • In linguistics, morphology is the study of words and how they are formed. • It analyzes the structure of words and parts of words, such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes.

3. What is a morpheme? • Morpheme is defined as the smallest speech unit which has meaning. • a meaningful morphological unit of a language that cannot be further divided (e.g. in, come, -ing, forming incoming ).

4. Knowing howwordsareformed: • enables us to derive manyvocabulary items from the same word(increase the wealth of vocabulary). • helpsusunderstandorguessthemeaningofunfamiliarwords.Forexample(act-acting– activity–action–actor–activate-activation):theyallsharethemeaningofthemorpheme(act) whichis"todosomething".

5. Free and bound morphemes • Freemorpheme:Itisthemorphemethatcanoccurasasinglewordwithmeaningasactin(actor). • Example:girl,system,desire,hope,act,phone,happy…etc.

6. Boundmorpheme: • Itisthemorphemethatcannotstandaloneasasinglewordasorin(actor). • Ithasmeaningonlywhenconnectedtoothermorphemes.un-(uncover,undo), dis-(displeased,disconnect),pre- (predetermine,prejudge).-er(singer,performer)-ist(typist, pianist)-ly(manly,friendly)(un-kind–ness)

7. Lexical and functional morphemes • Free morphemes fall into two categories. The first category is called lexical morphemes. • It is set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs. • They carry the ‘content’ of the messages we convey.

8. Functional morphemes • Functional morphemes consist of functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. • Examples: • and, but, when, because, on, near, above, in, the, that, it, them.

9. Affixes: • Englishwordscanbeclassifiedintosimpleorcomplex. • Asimplewordconsistsofafree basemorpheme;acomplexwordconsistsofabasemorphemeandother elements(bound morphemes)thatcanbeattachedtothebeginningorendofthebases.

10. Theword (unhappily)ismadeupofabasemorpheme'happy'andtheboundmorphemesare “un–ly”. • Theseelementsarecalled"Affixes".

11. Affixes:areboundmorphemesthatcanbeattachedtothebeginning (prefixes) ortheendofwords (suffixes). [affix………simpleform……..affix]. un ………. happi ………… ly

12. Prefixes:arethepartsweaddtothebeginningofaword. Suffixes:arethepartsweaddtotheendofaword.

13. Derivational and inflectional morphemes

14. Derivational morphemes • They can be suffixes or prefixes. • They involve change in the word meaning and class (part of speech). • Un + happy = unhappy (change in meaning) • En + rich = enrich (change in class, adjective into verb)

15. Derivationalaffixesalwaysprecedeinflectionalonesiftheycomeinthesameword.Derivationalaffixesalwaysprecedeinflectionalonesiftheycomeinthesameword. • For example:"modern-ize-s".Nootheraffixescanbeaddedafterinflectionalones.

16. InflectionalAffixes (morphemes): aresuffixes"elementsthatareaddedtotheendofaword.” They do not come at the beginning of a word. There are only 8 inflectional morphemes in English. 1- Theydo notchangethemeaningorpartofspeechoftheword. (boy/boys(n.)–read/reads(v.) –tall/taller/tallest(adj.))

17. inflectionalsuffixes (morphemes) • Nouninflectionalsuffixes: (2 morphemes)

18. VerbInflectionalsuffixes (4)

19. AdjectiveInflectionalsuffixes:

21. Derivationalandinflectionalaffixescansometimesbeidentical. • Example: “ing”inflectional: heiswriting. • derivational: Writingisessential foracademicworks".

23. Morphs and allomorphs • Morph: A morph is simply the phonetic representation of a morpheme, how the morpheme is said. Cats - '-s' morpheme is pronounced /s/Dogs - '-s' morpheme is pronounced /z/Houses - '-s' morpheme is pronounced /ɪz/ This /s/, /z/, /iz/ are the different sound of same morpheme {-s}.

24. Morpheme: Smallest meaningful unit, cannot be further divided or analyzedEx: Unthinkable = 'un-' 'think' and '-able‘Ex: Books = Book and s. • Allomorph: Allomorphs are different forms of the same morpheme, or basic unit of meaning. These can be different pronunciations or different spellings.

25. Positioning bound morphemes • Derivational morphemes can be prefixes or suffixes. • Inflectional morphemes are only suffixes. • At word can have at its end: • two (sometimes more) derivational morphemes as in naturalize (nature + al +ize)

26. If a derivational morpheme and an inflectional morpheme come at the end of the word, only the inflectional morpheme ends the word. Example: • naturalizes: (nature (free) + - al (derivational) + - ize (derivational) + - s (inflectional))

27. Note: if a word ends in an inflectional morpheme, no other morpheme can be added to it. Examples: • cars: ends in – s (inflectional morpheme marking plural). No morpheme can be added to it. • He is the tallest. No morpheme can be added after – est, the superlative marker. • The came applies to all inflectional morphemes.

28. Word formation processes This refers to creating word out of ‘existing’ words. The following are the word formation processes in detail.

29. 1. Compounding istheprocessofcreatingcompoundsbystringingtogetherseparate wordsinordertomake new words. There are varied combinations of(nouns–adjectives– verbsandparticles).

30. Types of compounds • Compound nouns: involve different parts • Noun + noun: bath towel; boy-friend; death blow policeman, boyfriend, water tank, dining-table, bedroom, motorcycle, printer cartridge, bus stop, egg rolls

31. b. Verb + noun: pickpocket; breakfast, drive inn, fire place, guide book, handle bar, note book, pay day, post man, search engine, show room, watch man, taste buds, stop clock

32. c. Noun +verb: nosebleed; sunshine, sunrise, haircut, hairdo, spoon-feed

33. d. Verb +verb: make-believe, sleepwalk e. Adjective + noun: deep structure; fast-food, high school, smallpox, bluebird, greenhouse. f. Particle + noun: in-crowd; down-town, down stair, off shore, out patient, on line, over weight, underworld

34. g. Adverb + noun: now generation, onlooker bystander, afterthought, inside h. Verb + particle: cop-out; drop-out

35. 2. Compound verbs a. Noun + verb: sky-dive b. Adjective + verb: fine-tune c. Particle + verb: overbook d. Adjective + noun: brown-bag

36. 3. Compound adjectives a. Noun + adjective: card-carrying; childproof b. Verb + adjective: fail safe c. Adjective + adjective: open-ended d. Adverb + adjective: cross-modal e. Particle + adjective: over-qualified f. Noun + noun: coffee-table g. Verb + noun: roll-neck h. Adjective + noun: red-brick; blue-collar i. Particle + noun: in-depth j. Verb + verb: go-go; make-believe k. Adjective/Adverb + verb: high-rise; l. Verb + particle: see-through; tow-away

37. 3. Coining/coinage (invention) • is the process where the new words are coined or invented from existing material to represent a new invention or development. • Examples: wireless, hypermarket, Aspirin, nylon, zipper, Teflon

38. Some other words are used as the generic name for different brands (trademarks) of products, such as: • Kleenex, Xerox,

39. 4. Borrowing • Borrowing: Taking words from other languages From other languages to English. • Examples: Alcohol (Arabic), Boss (Dutch), Piano (Italian), Robot (Czech), Yogurt (Turkish), Tycoon (Japanese).

40. 5. Clipping • Some words are used in shortened form by subtracting one or more syllables from a word. This shortening sometimes occurs at the beginning of a word, at the end of a word, or at both ends of a word. • EXAMPLES Shortened word............................Full word • photo...............................................photograph • plane...............................................aeroplane • pram...............................................perambulator • bus..................................................omnibus • flu...................................................influenza • phone.............................................telephone • hanky.............................................handkerchief • maths.............................................mathematics • lab..................................................laboratory

41. 6. Blends/blending • Two words are sometimes clipped and the clippings are joined to form a new word. EXAMPLES • brunch.....from.........breakfast and lunch • smog........from.........smoke and fog • telecast.......from......... television and broadcast • motel.........from........motorists and hotel

42. 7. Backformation A word of one type (may be noun) is reduced to another word of another type (may be verb) Television became televise, donation became donate,

44. 8. Acronyms • An acronym is formed by joining together the initial letters (or sometimes a little larger parts) of other words and is pronounced as a word.

45. The difference between an acronym and an abbreviation is that the latter may be formed from the initial letters in a phrase on name and is read letter by letter, e.g. IBM, BA, M.Sc., AD, and so on, while the former is formed from the first letter of each word and is normally pronounced as a word e.g. LASER, BASIC.

46. ROOT vs.STEM Root Roots are the cores 'hearts' of words or those parts of words that are not analysable into further morphemes. For instance: 'nature' is the root in the word 'naturalization' – it is the heart of this word.

47. Roots can either be free or bound • Free roots can appear alone in English in all parts of speech. • Allmonosyllabicwordsarefreerootssuchas'cat,write,sad,near,room,createandfast. • Alsosomemultisyllabicwordsare freerootssuchas 'margin,pretty

48. Boundrootscannotoccuraloneinspeechastheycarrynomeaning. • Theycombine forms fromLatinorigin and Greek; • theyoftenappearin Englishwords ofLatin andGreekorigin suchas'geology'(geo+logy),'predict'(pre+dict),'conceive(co+ceive'andnonchalance.

49. Stem • Thestem ofa wordisthatpartofthe wordto whichthelastmorphemeis structurallyadded. • Forexample, • theword'nature'isthestemof'natural; • naturalisthestemof naturalize; • andnaturalizeisthestemofnaturalization.

50. A root can also be a stem and a stem can be a root. • However, while all roots can be stems, not all stems are roots. For example; 'person' is both the stem and root of 'personal' is the stem but not the root of 'personality' as the root of 'personality' is 'person'.