McGraw-Hill/Irwin

1. McGraw-Hill/Irwin

2. Chapter One: The Sociological View

3. The Sociological View • What is Sociology? • What Is Sociological Theory? • The Development of Sociology • Major Theoretical Perspectives • What Is the Scientific Method? • Major Research Designs • Ethics of Research • Applied and Clinical Sociology

4. What is Sociology? • Sociology: scientific study of social behavior in human groups • Focus on: • How relationships influence people’s attitudes and behavior • How societies develop and change

5. The SociologicalImagination • C. Wright Mills describes sociologicalimagination as A key element is ability to view one’s society as an outsider would, rather than only from the perspective of personal experience An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society

6. The SociologicalImagination • View the world and its people in a new way • See through a broader lens • Looks beyond a limited understanding of human behavior

7. Sociology and the Social Sciences • Science: body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation • Naturalscience: study of physical features of nature and the ways they interact and change • Socialscience: study of various aspects of human society

8. Sociology and the Social Sciences • Study influence society has on people’s attitudes and behavior • Seek to understand ways in which people interact and shape society • Examine social relationships with others scientifically

9. Sociology and Common Sense • Sociologists do not accept something as fact because “everyone knows it” • Each piece of information must be tested, recorded, and analyzed • Women tend to be chatty • Military marriages more likely to end in separation or divorce

10. What Is Sociological Theory? • Theory • Set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior • Effective theories have explanatory and predictive power • Helps to see relationships among seemingly isolated phenomena • Helps to understand how one type of change in the environment leads to other changes

11. The Development of Sociology • Philosophers/religious authorities of ancient and medieval societies made observations of human behavior • European theorists in 19th century made pioneering contributions to development of science of human behavior

12. Early Thinkers • Auguste Comte 1798–1857 • Systematic investigation of behavior were needed to improve society • Coined term “sociology” • Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) • Studied social practices in Britain and U.S. • Emphasized impact of economy, law, trade, health, and population on social problems

13. Early Thinkers • Herbert Spencer 1820–1903 • Studied “evolutionary” change in society • Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) • Behavior must be understood within larger social context • Concluded that religion reinforces a group’s solidarity

14. Early Thinkers • Max Weber (1864–1920) • To comprehend behavior, must learn subjective meaning people attach to actions • Employ Verstehen(understanding; insight) • Ideal type: construct for evaluating specific cases

15. Early Thinkers • Karl Marx (1818-1883) • Society divided between two classes that clash in pursuit of their own interests • Worked with Engels • Emphasized group identifications and associations that influence one’s place in society • Working class needed to overthrow existing class system

16. Early Thinkers • W.E.B. Dubois (1868-1963) • Conducted research that he hoped would assist in the struggle for a racially egalitarian society • Believed that knowledge was essential in combating prejudice and achieving tolerance and justice • Double Consciousness • Division of an individual’s identity into two or more social realities

17. Modern Developments • Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) • Used sociological perspective to examine face-to-face groups such as families, gangs, and friendship • Jane Addams (1860–1935) • Combined intellectual inquiry, social service work, and political activism • Cofounded Hull House

18. Modern Developments • Robert Merton (1910–2003) • Combined theory and research • Developed explanations of deviant behavior • Macrosociology • Large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations • Microsociology • Small groups, often through experimental means

19. Modern Developments • Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002) • Capital in its many forms sustains individuals and families from one generation to the next • Material goods • Accumulation of knowledge • Prestige • Culture • Formal schooling

20. Major Theoretical Perspectives • Functionalist perspective • Conflict perspective • Interactionist perspective

21. Functionalist Perspective • Emphasizes the way parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability • Talcott Parsons (1902–1979) • Viewed society as vast network of connected parts, each of which helps maintain the system as a whole • Gulf oil spill • Functionalists would stress society’s supportive function

22. Functionalist Perspective • Dysfunctions: element or process of society that may disrupt a social system or its stability • Manifestfunctions: institutions are open, stated, conscious functions that involve intended, recognized, consequences of an aspect of society • Latentfunctions: unconscious or unintended functions that may reflect hidden purposes of an institution

23. Functionalist Perspective • Dysfunctions: element or process of society that may disrupt a social system or its stability • Manifestfunctions: institutions are open, stated, conscious functions that involve intended, recognized, consequences of an aspect of society • Latentfunctions: unconscious or unintended functions that may reflect hidden purposes of an institution

24. Conflict Perspective • Assumes social behavior is best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups • Gulf oil spill • Emphasize the coercion and exploitation that underlies relations between the oil industry and Gulf Coast communities

25. Conflict Perspective • The Marxist view • Conflict is not merely as a class phenomenon but as a part of everyday life in all societies • Conflict theorists are more “radical” and “activist” than functionalists

26. Conflict Perspective • The Feminist View • View inequity in gender as central to all behavior and organization • Often allied with conflict theory • Also focuses on micro-level relationships

27. Interactionist Perspective • Generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction to explain society as a whole • George Herbert Mead (1863—1931) • Gulf oil spill • How it shaped personal relations and day-to-day social behavior • Nonverbal communication: can include many gestures, facial expressions, and postures

28. Table 1-1: Comparing Major Theoretical Perspectives

29. The Sociological Approach • Gain broadest understanding of society by drawing on all major perspectives, noting where they overlap or diverge • Each perspective offers unique insights into the same issue • A researcher’s work always guided by his or her theoretical viewpoint

30. What Is the Scientific Method? • Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem

31. Scientific Method • Defining the Problem • Operational definition: explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow researcher to assess the concept • Reviewing the Literature • Refines problem under study

32. Scientific Method • Formulating the Hypothesis • Hypothesis: speculative statement about relationship between two or more factors known as variables • Variable: measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions • Independent variable: variable hypothesized to cause or influence another • Dependent variable: action dependson influence of independent variable

33. Scientific Method • Formulating the Hypothesis • Causal logic: involves relationships between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other • Correlation: exists when change in one variable coincides with change in another Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation

34. Figure 1-1: The Scientific Method

35. Collecting and Analyzing Data • Selecting the Sample • Sample: selection from larger population that is statistically typical of that population • Randomsample: when every member of a population has same chance of being selected

36. Collecting and Analyzing Data • Ensuring Validity and Reliability • Validity: degree to which measure reflects the phenomenon being studied • Reliability: extent to which measure provides consistent results

37. Developing the Conclusion • Supporting the Hypothesis • Sociological studies do not always generate data that support original hypothesis • Controlling for Other Factors Control variable:factor held constant to test the relativeimpact of the independent variable

38. Figure 1-2: Impact of a College Education on Income

39. Major Research Designs • Research design: detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically • Surveys • Observation • Experiments • Existing sources

40. Surveys • Study that provides sociologists with information about how people act or think • Questionnaire:researcher uses printed or written form to obtain information from respondent • Interview:researcher obtains information through face-to-face or telephone questioning

41. Surveys • Quantitative research: collects and reports data primarily in numerical form • Qualitativeresearch: relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities

42. Observation • Collecting information through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or community • Observation: sociologist joins group to get accurate sense of how it operates • Ethnography: efforts to describe entire social setting through extended systematic observation

43. Experiments • Artificially created situation that allows researcher to manipulate variables • Experimentalgroup: exposed to independent variable • Controlgroup: not exposed to independent variable • Hawthorneeffect: unintended influence of observers or experiments on subjects

44. Use of Existing Sources • Secondary analysis: research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data • Content analysis: systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale

45. Table 1-2: Existing Sources Used in Sociological Research

46. Table 1-3: Major Research Designs

47. Ethics of Research • Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997) • Maintain objectivity and integrity in research • Respect subject’s right to privacy and dignity • Protect subjects from personal harm • Preserve confidentiality • Seek informed consent • Acknowledge collaboration and assistance • Disclose all sources of financial support

48. Applied and Clinical Sociology • Applied sociology • Use of sociology with intent of yielding practical applications for human behavior and organizations • Example: • Community Health Assets and Needs Assessment (CHANA) • Studies four low-income immigrant communities on the South Side of Chicago

49. Applied and Clinical Sociology • Clinicalsociology: dedicated to altering social relationships (as in family therapy) or to restructuring social institutions (as in the reorganization of a medical center) • Basic sociology: (pure sociology) seeks profound knowledge of fundamental aspects of social phenomena