Solving the Problem

1. Solving the Problem Purpose, Objectives, Questions, Hypotheses

2. Purpose and Objectives • The purpose of the study includes the aims or goals the investigator hopes to achieve with the research. It gives an idea of what the researcher hopes to do, in general, to solve the problem. Objectives tell you what approach the researcher has decided to take to solve the problem. They may or may not be present.

3. Questions and Hypotheses • These break down the purpose or objectives into components and elements that can be worked on operationally. They must flow from the conceptual framework, if there is one. They will guide the design or procedures. They must be stated prior to collecting data.

4. Questions • These are used in exploratory and preliminary studies. They are ways of learning more about some phenomenon – ways of gathering enough data to develop hypotheses. They must be clearly stated so that they can be as rigorously answered as an hypothesis would be.

5. Hypotheses • A hypothesis is a statement of your expected outcome based on your rationale. It is a prediction, from uncertain evidence, about the relationship between two or more variables. It is an educated guess

6. Purposes of Hypotheses • To narrow the field of the research and give more direction to the research • To identify, in measurable terms, what the researcher believes to be the cause and effect of a given situation • To state a relationship specifically so that the relationship can be tested – found to be probable or not probable (Note: One can’t test good or evil, a moral or ethical situation)

7. Variables • Variables are measurable or potentially measurable components which may fluctuate in quantity or quality. A variable is anything that can change or vary – a symbol to which numbers or values are assigned.

8. Variables cont. • An independent variable (IV)– stands alone, does not rely on any other variable. It is usually stated first. • A dependent variable (DV)– the effect of the action of the independent variable. It cannot exist by itself. In research, the researcher manipulates the IV to determine if it causes the DV. Control of the IV should control the DV.

9. Variables cont. • Extraneous variables – are those that are uncontrolled or lie outside of the interest of the researcher • Control or controlled variables – are those that are held constant so that the results are unaffected by them • Intervening variables – are those that come between the IV and the DV - such as stress or anxiety. They can’t be measured but the researcher can attempt to reduce their intensity

10. Variables cont. • Confounding variables – are those that influence the DV by interfering with it in some way – such as a patient’s attitude toward recovery - wants insurance or compensation • Antecedent variables – are those that come before the IV and bear a relationship to it and the DV – such as poor nutrition

11. Variables cont. • Organismic variables – those that cannot ethically be changed by the researcher such as age, sex, marital status • Dichotomous variables – have only two categories – male/female • Discrete variables – exist only in units – eye color, race • Continuous variables – those for which a fractional value exists and has meaning – age, height, weight

12. Wording an Hypothesis • It must be stated in operational terms – the terms relating to the IV and the DV must be defined so that everyone interprets them the same way • It must be stated in precise, scientific language • It must be conceptually clear – it must be measurable and observers must agree on the measurement • It should be related to a theory so that the finding will be relevant

13. Types of Hypotheses • Simple hypotheses – have one IV & one DV • Complex hypotheses – more than one IV or more than one DV or more than both • Null or statistical hypotheses – state there is no relationship between IV and DV – the DV was changed by chance • Research or scientific hypotheses – state there is a relationship and usually state the direction • Non-directional Hypotheses – related but ? how • Directional hypotheses – related either + or -

14. Conceptual vs. Operational Definitions of Variables • A conceptual definition conveys the general meaning of the concept such as might be found in a dictionary. It can reflect the framework used in the study. • An operational definition gives you the procedures or operations required to measure the concept. It supplies information so you know how data will be collected, for instance, “Anxiety is the score achieved on the state portion of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)”