Geography 70

2. Uses of Maps To record and store information for reference. To analyze locational distributions and spatial patterns. To present information and communicate findings (often to help facilitate decision-making). Reiterate the Value of MapsReiterate the Value of Maps

3. Cartographic Communication Success or failure on the part of the cartographer depends on whether or not the map communicates the intended information. Maps are a means of communication and organization of thought, created to transmit some type of spatial information to the map reader. This is where you have a LOT of power. You can make maps show information that you want to show, and hide information that you want to hide. Maps are a means of communication and organization of thought, created to transmit some type of spatial information to the map reader. This is where you have a LOT of power. You can make maps show information that you want to show, and hide information that you want to hide.

4. Cartographic Communication How do I say what to whom? Cartographer (I) map reader/audience (whom) map design and production (how) subject of the map (what)

5. Thematic vs. Reference Thematic maps spatial distribution of particular variables Often created by GIS analysts Reference maps USGS Topo maps, navigation charts, tax maps Generally created by large mapping organizations All maps are models of reality, and thus involve abstraction from reality. It is up to the cartographer to control the simplification and generalization inherent in this process. Essentially two types of maps: Thematic and Reference We will mostly discuss Thematic, although a lot of what I will talk about is important to both types.All maps are models of reality, and thus involve abstraction from reality. It is up to the cartographer to control the simplification and generalization inherent in this process. Essentially two types of maps: Thematic and Reference We will mostly discuss Thematic, although a lot of what I will talk about is important to both types.

6. �Rules� of cartography Example: �maps should always have a scale bar� �Rules� should be considered in terms of what the cartographer is trying to communicate with the map Example: A series of page-sized maps of the entire U.S. displaying different population variables by state? � a scale bar may not be important for these maps. Readers are likely to already be familiar with the size and shape of the U.S. The purpose of these maps has nothing to do with measuring distances. But, some guidelines...

7. Map elements Most common: map/spatial data title scale legend north arrow inset(s) textual information (incl. spatial metadata) border, neatlines coordinate grid

8. Titles

12. Legend

13. Legends

15. Textual information Common uses: author/publisher date of production date of map information projection type and coordinate system information data sources brief information on how the map was produced

16. Textual information: Common uses: author/publisher date of production date of map information projection type and coordinate system information data sources Less common, but good: brief information on how the map was produced (helps readers judge map for themselves) Boders, neatlines: Provide a graphic "container� for the map that may not otherwise be provided (e.g. on web pages). Almost essential when an unclosed portion of a geographic area is being shown -- necessary to "close off" the geographic area at the edge of the map. Textual information: Common uses: author/publisher date of production date of map information projection type and coordinate system information data sources Less common, but good: brief information on how the map was produced (helps readers judge map for themselves) Boders, neatlines: Provide a graphic "container� for the map that may not otherwise be provided (e.g. on web pages). Almost essential when an unclosed portion of a geographic area is being shown -- necessary to "close off" the geographic area at the edge of the map.

17. Map Elements

18. Coordinate grid

19. Data symbolization For vector data: basic symbol elements (Geographic Primitives) are: Points Lines Areas Choice of symbol is scale dependent

20. Symbolization Nominal/categorical data There are four types of data, and the type will determine how we can possibly symbolize the data. The first is Nominal data. <Read Slide>There are four types of data, and the type will determine how we can possibly symbolize the data. The first is Nominal data. <Read Slide>

21. Symbolization Ordinal data Next is Ordinal data <Read Slide>Next is Ordinal data <Read Slide>

23. Symbolization Ratio Data

24. Bertin�s Visual Variables Jacques Bertin, French geographer classified different graphic methods for symbolization called �visual� or �graphic� variables So you decide on how you will symbolize your data. But how do you select the manner in which to vary the symbols for a range of data?Jacques Bertin, a French geographer, developed Bertin�s Visual Variables to help describe the different characteristics that map symbols can have.So you decide on how you will symbolize your data. But how do you select the manner in which to vary the symbols for a range of data?Jacques Bertin, a French geographer, developed Bertin�s Visual Variables to help describe the different characteristics that map symbols can have.

25. Bertin�s Visual Variables NOTE: the list presented here adds Arrangement to Berin�s visual variables, based on work by Bernhardsen.

26. Size Difference in geometric dimensions (e.g. length, height, diameter) of symbols Convention: larger size = greater quantity or importance

27. Shape Differences in forms of symbols Options: abstract (e.g circle, square) iconographic (e.g. airplane, flag, schoolhouse) Caution: too many different shapes can get very busy and difficult for the map reader to discriminate

28. Dimensions of Color

29. Color Hue (Color) Real color differences (not simply differences in intensity or saturation) Perceptual difficulties for some map readers is a problem (e.g. 6-8% males color-blind)

30. Color Value Intensity or saturation (relative lightness or darkness of symbols) Convention: darkness = higher numerical values Difficult for map readers to keep track of more than four or five values

31. Texture Size and spacing of elements that make up a single symbol Dense vs. sparse Danger of aesthetically unpleasing appearance

32. Orientation Direction of symbols Useful for some nominal variables (e.g. wind direction)

33. Arrangement Configuration (random vs. systematic) Convention: random often used to symbolize natural phenomena (e.g. marshland) systematic used to symbolize human-made phenomena (e.g. croplands)

34. Map Layout and Design Key components to consider when designing a map Legibility Visual Contrast Visual Balance Figure-Ground Relationship Hierarchical Organization

35. Legibility Make sure that graphic symbols are easy to read and understand Size, color, pattern must be easily distinguishable Map Layout and Design

36. Visual Contrast Uniformity produces monotony Strive for contrast/variation (but don�t overdo it) Variation can be expressed with size intensity shape color Map Layout and Design Visual contrast is an important component of maps.Visual contrast is an important component of maps.

38. Simultaneous Color Contrast

39. Map Layout and Design Visual Balance Keep things in balance Think about the graphic weight, visual weight Graphic weight is affected by darkness/lightness, intensity and density of map elements Visual center is slightly above the actual center(Standard is 5%) Visual balance. This is what many of you need to pay more attention to when making maps for your assignments. You need to balance your maps and make them more compact. Want to minimize white space.Visual balance. This is what many of you need to pay more attention to when making maps for your assignments. You need to balance your maps and make them more compact. Want to minimize white space.

41. Visual center The idea is to place your map features so that the center of the mapped area is ~5% of the height above the actual center. It has been shown that this is the part of the map that the eye is drawn to first.The idea is to place your map features so that the center of the mapped area is ~5% of the height above the actual center. It has been shown that this is the part of the map that the eye is drawn to first.

42. Map Layout and Design Figure-Ground Relationship Complex, automatic reaction of eye and brain to a graphic display. Figure: stands outGround: recedes Figure is the object(s) that you are interested in. Ground is the rest of the mapped area that is less important to the map.Figure is the object(s) that you are interested in. Ground is the rest of the mapped area that is less important to the map.

43. Map Layout and Design Figure-Ground Relationship All other things being equal, there are factors that are likely to cause an object to be perceived as figure (i.e. stand out from background) articulation & detail objects that are complete (e.g. land areas contained within a map border) smaller areas (relative to large background areas) darker areas

46. Map Layout and Design Figure-Ground Relationship Very difficult to develop a hard and fast rule with figure ground, relies on a mix of factors

47. Map Layout and Design Hierarchical Organization Use of graphical organization schemes to focus reader�s attention There are three types of Hierarchical Organization.There are three types of Hierarchical Organization.

48. Hierarchical Organization Extensional �Ranks Features on the Map� Use of different sized line symbols for roads

50. Hierarchical Organization Subdivisional Portrays the internal divisions of a hierarchy Example: Regions of North Carolina

51. Hierarchical Organization Stereogrammatic Gives the impression that classes of features lie at different levels on the map Those on top are most important

53. Text: Selection and Placement