Modern European History I HIS-106

1. Modern European History IHIS-106 Unit 9 – The Enlightenment

2. The Enlightenment • Enlightenment • Intellectual and cultural movement of the 18th century • Used Scientific Revolution to reexamine all aspects of life • Period of skepticism and criticism of traditional values, beliefs, and institutions • Discarded dogma, superstition, and the opinions of others • Goal: gain an understanding solely through the use of reason • Main concerns of Enlightened thinkers: • Danger of unchecked and arbitrary authority • Value of religious toleration • Importance of natural law, reason, and human dignity

3. Characteristics of the Enlightenment • Not all thinkers shared the same ideas • Some actually criticized the ideas • There were similar characteristics • Had confidence in the power of human reason • Stems from the accomplishments of the Scientific Revolution • Declared their independence from the past • Gave a level of self-confidence thinkers did not have before • Believed reason needed autonomy and freedom • “Dare to Know!” (Immanuel Kant) • Were indebted to their immediate predecessors • Voltaire’s “Holy Trinity”: Locke, Bacon, and Newton

4. Characteristics of the Enlightenment • Applied the scientific method to the organization of knowledge • Evidence was collected on the rise and fall of nations • Government constitutions were compared • “Cultural project” of the Enlightenment • Used practical, applied knowledge to help spread knowledge and free public discussion • Wanted “To change the common way of thinking” (Diderot) • Wrote for a larger audience, which included the average educated person • Some would use satire and fiction as a way of bringing this message to more people

5. Leading to Enlightenment • England was the starting point for the Enlightenment • During 17th century, progressive ideas and developments • Home of Newton and Locke • Impact of the Glorious Revolution (1688) • French philosophes examined England • Voltaire visited there and praised its system • Montesquieu used it as the basis of his separation of powers • Paths to the Enlightenment: • Popularization of science • Rise of a new skepticism • Impact of travel literature • Legacy of Newton and Locke

6. Bernand de Fontenelle • (1657-1757)

7. Popularization of Science • Science during the 17th century did not affect the masses • Works of natural philosophers only affected a small minority • Most of what was written could not be understood by the average person • Bernard de Fontenelle(1657-1757) • Secretary of the French Royal Academy of Science (1691-1741) • Main contribution was bringing science to the upper class • Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686) • Written in French instead of Latin • More accessible to the non-scientific population • Story is about how a man explains the heliocentric view of the universe in layman’s terms to his lover

8. Pierre Bayle • (1647-1706)

9. A New Skepticism • Major impact of the Scientific Revolution was the population becoming more educated • The more people knew about nature and the universe, the more they started to question religious truths and doctrines • This led to growing secularization and the rise of skepticism • Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) • French Huguenot scholar and philosopher • Attacked many of the traditional religious attitudes: superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism • Said that you cannot prove which beliefs are true and false • Therefore, all beliefs should be tolerated

10. A New Skepticism • Morality was separate from religious beliefs • A group of atheists could be more moral than a group of Christians • Historical and Critical Dictionary (1697) • Starts to question the sources of the Bible • Israeli King David was not the heroic king so often portrayed • In actuality, he was a vicious leader who pillaged, tortured, and murdered innocent victims • The book was banned in France • Placed on the Index of Prohibited Books shortly after it was published

11. Captain James Cook • (1728-1779)

12. Impact of Travel Literature • During this period, travel literature was popular • Many explorers began to publish accounts of their travels • Examined the new cultures of the world • Showed how advanced some of them were • China was considered a highly developed civilization with a morally superior form of religion in their Confucianism • Other cultures became known and respected • This led to the rise of cultural relativism • Were more simpler than European ones and they were happier • “The life of savages is so simple, and our societies are such complicated machines!...They understand nothing about our manner or our laws, and they are bound to see in them nothing but shackles disguised in a hundred different ways.”

13. Impact of Travel Literature • Captain James Cook (1728-1779) • Captain of H.M. Bark Endeavour • Traveled around the world three times • Discovered New Zealand, Tahiti, and eastern shore of Australia • Charted most of the south Pacific • “Endeavour” Journals (1768-1771) • Written during his first voyage around the world • Focused on his discoveries in the Pacific • Discussed the use citrus fruits to help ward off scurvy • Also how he kept his crew in shape through exercise • His book became a best seller

14. John Locke • (1632-1704)

15. The Legacy of Newton and Locke • Both gave the intellectual inspiration for the Enlightenment • Impact of Newton • Through his physics, Newton gave a better understanding of the universe • If there were laws to the universe, could there be laws to mankind? • John Locke (1632-1704) • English philosopher • Tried to find the laws of mankind in terms of politics and justice • Set the stage for Classical Liberalism

16. John Locke (1632-1704) • Two Treaties On Government (1689) • Criticizes the concept of Divine Right of Kings • Government is a social contract with the people • It is designed to protect man’s natural rights (life, liberty, property) • If the people do not like what the government is doing, they have a right to overthrow it • Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) • Every person is born with a tabula rasa (“blank slate”) • Our knowledge comes from our environment • Evil is not hereditary but something that has to be learned • New governments and societies could be created using reason and natural laws

17. Reading from Molière (1728)

18. The Philosophes • Philosophes • A “free thinker” unhampered by the constraints of religion or dogma in any form • Few were actual philosophers and not all of them were French • Included everything from professors to political scientists to social reformers • Wanted “to study society with the purpose of making his kind better and happier” • Salons • Hosted by salonnières, aristocratic women • Gatherings of elite of society and the philosophes • Helped spread ideas outside of academia • Helped to educate women

19. Voltaire • (1694-1778)

20. Voltaire (1694-1778) • Voltaire (1694-1778) • Born François Marie Arouet • He was a writer, philosopher, and deist • Used satire to criticize many of the institutions of the day • Targeted the French government and the Catholic Church • Wrote during a time period of censorship • Early Works • Made satirical criticisms of the French aristocracy • Served time in the Bastille for libel when he was in his 20s • He was temporarily exiled in England in 1724 • While he was there, he became a great admirer of all things English (especially Newton and Locke)

21. Voltaire (1694-1778) • Philosophical Letters (1734) • Written after he returned to France • It was also known as Letters on the English Nation • Compared a healthy and rational nation (Great Britain) to a very unhealthy one (France) • Discussed the religious and political liberties of the British • Showed great admiration for English culture and politics and respect for scientists • Praised Britain for having more religious toleration than France • Candide (1759) • Criticized Leibnitzian Optimism (“we live in the best of all possible worlds”) • Mocked every institution and aspect of the aristocracy

22. Voltaire (1694-1778) • Philosophy • Promoted toleration, civil rights, and free speech • Was very anti-clerical • Écrasez l’infâme (“crush infamy”) • Saw infamy as all forms of repression, fanaticism, and bigotry • Especially saw this in the Church • Calas case • Was strongly opposed to religious bigotry • Sought to free religion of superstition • “The less superstition, the less fanaticism; and the less fanaticism, the less misery • Not against religion but rather against narrow dogma

23. Voltaire (1694-1778) • He was a big believer in civil liberties • He once said to a political opponent: “I do not agree with a word you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it” • Saw inspiration in “enlightened despotism” • Still viewed monarchy as necessary • Voltaire’s works caused him many problems • He was forced into temporary exile numerous times • His books were banned and burned • However, because of his popularity, the French kings had to tolerate him

24. Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu • (1689-1755)

25. Montesquieu (1689-1755) • Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) • Philosophe and political writer • Was more cautious and less provocative in his work • Born into a noble family • Became magistrate in the parlement of Bordeaux • Persian Letters (1721) • Story of two Persians travelling to Paris • Examination of Parisian life through the eyes of foreigners • Criticized all aspects of France (e.g., criminal justice system, lack of equality between sexes, etc.) • Was able to criticize society and avoid censorship

26. Montesquieu (1689-1755) • The Spirit of Laws (1748) • Examined different types of governments using an empirical approach • Believed there were three different types of governments • Republic was either a democracy or rule by an aristocracy (virtue) • Monarchy was limited by the law (honor) • Despotism does not follow the law and there is fear of the ruler (fear) • There was no one perfect type of government that would work everywhere • Each country’s system should be based on its traditions and cultures • For example, hot climates should have despotism to get people working

27. Montesquieu (1689-1755) • Balance of Power • Most important section of Spirit focused on separation and balance of power • Built upon the structure set up in England • Major influence on the writers of the U.S. constitution • Criticism of France • Realized France was drifting towards despotism • Wanted to use either the parlements or the aristocracy to counter-balance the monarchy • However, aristocracy was very corrupt during this period

28. Denis Diderot • (1713-1784)

29. Denis Diderot (1713-1784) • Denis Diderot (1713-1784) • Encyclopédie, or a systematic dictionary of the sciences, arts, and crafts (1751-1772) • A 28 volume set that he edited • Its main goal was to change the way people thought • "All things must be examined, debated, investigated without exception and without regard for anyone's feelings“ • Even though the cost was high, it still had high circulation despite the high price • Articles were written by numerous philosophes • Attacked religious dogma and superstition • Encouraged religious toleration

30. Denis Diderot (1713-1784) • Philosophy • He liked to comment on the more popular themes at the time • Mainly discussed Christianity and government • Christianity was “the most absurd and the most atrocious in its dogma” • Went from being a deist to an atheist • Attacked the monarchy • “Man will never be free until the last king is strangled with the entrails of the last priest” • “And his hands would plait the priest's entrails, For want of a rope, to strangle kings.”

31. Page from the Encyclopédie • It illustrates Truth in the middle shining its light

32. Humanitarianism • Humanitarianism • Focused on the dignity and worth of all individuals • This had many different aspects including legal reform • Criminals were subject to torture • Including branding, whipping and various forms of mutilation • Numerous crimes involved the death penalty • There were public executions • Trial of Jean Calas (1762) • Illustrated the flaws with the criminal justice system • Calas was found guilty of murdering his son • Argued that Calas, a protestant, wanted to kill his son to prevent him from converting to Catholicism • There was no proof of this

33. Humanitarianism • Punishment included being tortured twice and then put to death • First round of torture was to garner a confession • Second round was to find his accomplices • Included having his arms and legs slowly pulled apart, having gallons of water poured down his throat, and then “broken on the wheel” in public • He then had his head cut off • Voltaire took on this case • Became his own crusade against anti-Protestant fanaticism • Convinced the court in 1765 that Calas was actually innocent

34. Cesare Beccaria • (1738–1794)

35. Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794) • CesareBeccaria (1738–1794) • He was an Italian jurist who focused on humanitarianism and legal reform • On Crimes and Punishments (1764) • Attacked the common view that punishment represented society’s vengeance on the criminal • Argued that the legitimate rationale for punishment was to maintain social order and prevent other crimes (deterrence) • Exposed the public to horrors of torture being used • Also illustrated the dehumanizing process of public executions • By 1800, a number of countries eliminated torture and limited the death penalty to capital crimes • Many believe this was influenced by Beccaria’s work

36. Gotthold Lessing • (1729-1781)

37. Religious Toleration • Religious Toleration • Called for an end to religious warfare and persecution of heretics • Many philosophes were against religious institutions and dogmas • Most of them considered themselves religious • Some who considered themselves agnostics • Only a small few considered themselves atheists • Attacked Christianity for being too superstitious • Deism • Common belief amongst the philosophes • God was like a “divine clockmaker” • Do not believe God intervenes in the everyday life of mankind

38. Religious Toleration • Religious toleration was mainly limited to Christianity • A number of the philosophes saw Jews and Muslims as being “backwards” and full of superstition and ritual • Others called Jews heretics and “Christ killers” • Some who believed in toleration of non-Christians as well • Gotthold Lessing (1729–1781) • Treated Jews sympathetically in his play Nathan the Wise (1779) • Stated there was not one true religion • Believed the three monotheistic religions were three versions of the same truth

39. Adam Smith • (1723-1790)

40. Economic Reforms • The philosophes also addressed economic policy • The shape of the state was changing • A rise in the financial demands of states and their rising empires • How could a government make the most of its resources? • French physiocrats • Saw an inherent natural order that properly governed society • Spoke out against mercantilism • True wealth came from land and agricultural production • They called for a simplified tax system • Laissez-faire - Wealth and goods should circulate without government interference

41. Economic Reforms • Adam Smith (1723–1790) • Pushed the concept of laissez-faire economics was • Scottish economist who took in the ideas of the physiocrats • Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) • Restrictions associated with mercantilism (e.g. high taxes on imported goods) did not create real economic well-being • Individuals should chose their own interests without competition from state-chartered monopolies or legal restraints • No state regulation of the economy; let business regulate itself

42. Jean-Jacques Rousseau • (1712-1778)

43. Radical Enlightenment • There were also radical philosophes • Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) • He did believe in humanitarianism and the creation of a just society • Focused on making mankind good • Theory of Natural Man • Praised the virtues of natural man • Natural man does not act morally • “Savage man” does not understand complex concepts such as “justice” or “evil”

44. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) • Society as a necessary evil • Society was necessary for people to develop their moral nature and capacity to reason • Society also corrupted by pitting individuals against each other • Called for reforms in political society and education • The Social Contract (1762) • “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. One man thinks himself the master of others, but remains more of a slave than they." • In humanity’s natural state, all men are equal • Society brings about inequality with its division of labor and private property • Man becomes more competitive and yet more dependant on other men

45. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) • Popular Sovereignty • Was against different branches of government and monarchy • He did not believe in representative democracy but rather direct democracy • This would transformed a nation • Citizens would form a “body politic” • People would be willing to give up certain rights out of mutual obligation rather than coercive laws • “General Will” • The population would be united together by the “general will” • Common interests would outweigh individual ones • Popular sovereignty will do what is good for the people in general

46. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

47. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) • Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) • British writer, philosopher, and feminist • Many of her ideas were similar to other philosophes of the time • She also had been Rousseau’s sharpest critic • A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) • She illustrated numerous Republican ideas • Spoke against inequality and artificial distinctions of rank, birth, or wealth • Society ought to seek “the perfection of our nature and capability of happiness” • Women had the same innate capacity for reason and self-government as men • Virtue the same thing for men and women • Relations between the sexes ought to be based on equality

48. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) • Wollstonecraft also spoke about issues with the family • Marriage laws were unequal and allowed the husband to be “despotic” over his wife • Women have been taught to be dependent and seductive in order to win husbands • Education needs to promote liberty and self-reliance • She did see a natural division of labor between men and women • A woman’s main job was mothering and educating her children

49. Europe (c. 1700)

50. Enlightened Absolutism • Secularization of the monarchy • Monarchs no longer pressed the issue of divine-right • Took up more utilitarian viewpoint: they were there to provide services to the well-being of their state • These ideas were strongly supported by the philosophes • Enlightened monarchs • Rulers who took on enlightened ideas • Believed that their power was similar to the absolute monarchs • Included hereditary rights and refusing constitutions • Believed in improving the lives of their subjects • Strengthen a monarch’s authority rather than hurt it