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Nervous System: Structure and Functions

Explore the components and functions of the nervous system, from sensory input to motor output. Learn about the classification of nervous tissue and neurons, and how nerve impulses are transmitted. Delve into the organization and properties of neurons, including their role in conducting impulses and transmitting signals at synapses. Discover the intricate workings of the central and peripheral nervous systems and gain insights into the integration of sensory information for coordinated responses.

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Nervous System: Structure and Functions

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  1. Nervous System Notes

  2. Functions of the Nervous System • Sensory input- gathering information • To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body • Changes = stimuli Integration to process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is needed Motor Output A response to integrated stimuli The response activates muscles or glands

  3. Functions of the nervous system

  4. Structural Classification of the Nervous System • Central Nervous System (CNS) • Brain • Spinal Cord Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord spinal nerves cranial nerves

  5. Functional Classification of the PNS • Sensory (afferent) division • Nerve fibers that carry information to the CNS Motor (efferent) division Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the CNS 2 subdivisions: Somatic Nervous system = voluntary Autonomic Nervous system = involuntary

  6. Organization of the Nervous System

  7. Nervous Tissue: support cells • Support cells in the CNS are grouped together as “neuroglia” • Function: to support, insulate, and protect neurons.

  8. Support Cells • Astrocytes: • Abundant, star-shaped cells • Brace neurons • Form barrier between capillaries and neurons • Control the chemical environment of the brain Microglia: Spiderlike phagocytes Dispose of debris

  9. Astrocytes

  10. Microglia

  11. Support Cells • Ependymal Cells • Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord • Circulate cerebrospinal fluid Oligodendrocytes Wrap around nerve fibers in the CNS Produce myelin sheaths Satellite Cells: protect neuron cell bodies Schwann Cells: form myelin sheath in the Peripheral nervous system

  12. Ependymal Cells

  13. Oligodendrocyte

  14. Satellite and Schwann Cells

  15. Neurons • Neurons- nerve cells • Cells specialized to transmit messages • Major regions of neurons • Cell body- nucleus and metabolic center of the cell • Composed of Nissl substance (specialized rough e.r.) • Neurofibrils-intermediate cytoskeleton, maintains cell shape. • Processes- fibers that extend from the cell body • Dendrites- conduct impulses toward the cell body • Axons-conduct impulses away from the cell body. Color page: Functional Classification of Neurons

  16. Neuron

  17. Neurons • Axons end in axonal terminals • Axonal terminals contain vesicles with neurotransmitters • Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron by a gap • Synaptic cleft- gap between adjacent neurons • Synapse- junction between nerves. • Myelin Sheath- whitish, fatty material covering axons • Schwann Cells produce myelin sheaths in jelly roll-like fashion • Nodes of Ranvier- gaps in myelin sheath along the axon.

  18. Neuron Cell Body Location • Most neuron cell bodies are found in the CNS • Gray matter- cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers • Nuclei- clusters of cell bodies within the white matter of the CNS • Ganglia- collections of cell bodies outside the CNS • Sensory(afferent) neurons • Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to CNS • Cutaneous sense organs • Proprioceptors-detect stretch or tension • Motor (efferent) neurons • Carry impulses from CNS to viscera, muscles or glands. • Interneurons (associated neurons) • Found in neural pathways in the CNS • Connect sensory and motor neurons

  19. Neuron Classification • Multipolar Neurons- many extensions from the cell body • Bipolar neurons- one axon and one dendrite • Unipolar neurons- have a short single process leaving the cell body

  20. Neuron Classification

  21. Functional Properties of Neurons • Irritability • Ability to respond to stimuli • Conductivity • Ability to transmit an impulse

  22. Nerve Impulses • Resting neuron • The plasma membrane at rest is polarized • Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than outside the cell • Depolarization • A stimulus deploarizes the neuron’s membrane • A depolarized membrane allows sodium to flow inside the membrane • The exchange of ions initiates an action potential in the neuron

  23. Nerve Impulses • Action Potential • If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it is propagated over the entire axon • Impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin sheath • Repolarization • Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after sodium ions rush in, which repolarizes the membrane • The sodium-potassium pump, using ATP, restores the original configuration

  24. Nerve Impulses

  25. Transmission of a Signal at Synapses • Impulses are able to cross the synapse to another nerve. • Neurotransmitter is released fro a nerve’s axon terminal • The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors that are stimulated by the neurotransmitter • An action potential is started in the dendrite

  26. Axonterminal Actionpotentialarrives Axon oftransmittingneuron Vesicles Synapticcleft Receivingneuron Synapse Transmitting neuron Neurotrans-mitter bindsto receptoron receivingneuron’smembrane Vesiclefuses withplasmamembrane Neurotrans-mitter is re-leased intosynaptic cleft Neurotransmittermolecules Synaptic cleft Ion channels Receiving neuron Neurotransmitterbroken downand released Neurotransmitter Receptor Na+ Na+ Ion channel opens Ion channel closes Transmission of Signal

  27. The Reflex Arc • Reflex-rapid, predictable and involuntary response to a stimulus • Occurs over pathways called reflex arcs • Reflex arc- direct route from a sensory neuron, to an interneuron to an effector

  28. Types of Reflexes and Regulation • Somatic Reflexes • Activation of skeletal muscles • EXAMPLE: when you move your hand away from hot stove. • Autonomic Reflexes • Smooth muscle regulation • Heart and blood pressure regulation • Regulation of glands • Digestive system regulation • Patellar or knee jerk, 2-neuron reflex arc

  29. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM • CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube • The opening of the neural tube becomes the ventricles • Four chambers within the brain • Filled with cerebrospinal fluid

  30. Regions of the Brain • Cerebral hemispheres (Cerebrum) • Diencephalon • Brain Stem • Cerbellum

  31. Cerebrum • Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into lobes • Surface lobes of the cerebrum • Frontal Lobe • Parietal Lobe • Occipital Lobe • Temporal Lobe

  32. Cerebrum • Specialized areas of the cerebrum • Primary somatic sensory area • Receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors • Located in the parietal lobe • Primary motor area • Sends impulses to skeletal muscles • Located in frontal lobe • Broca’s area • Involved in our ability to speak

  33. Cerebrum • Cerebral areas involves in special senses • Gustatory area (Taste) • Visual area • Auditory area • Olfactory area

  34. Cerebrum • Interpretation areas of the cerebrum • Speech/language region • Language comprehension region • General interpretation area • Layers of the cerebrum • Gray matter- outer layer in the cerebral cortex composed mostly of neuron cell bodies • White matter- fiber tracts deep to the gray matter • Corpus callosum connects hemispheres • Basal nuclei= islands of gray matter buried within the white matter

  35. Diencephalon • Sits on top of the brain stem • Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres • Made of 3 parts • Thalamus • Hypothalamus • Epithalamus

  36. Thalamus • Surrounds the third ventricle • The relay station for sensory impulses • Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for localization and interpretation

  37. Hypothalamus • Under the thalamus • Important autonomic nervous system center • Helps regulate body temperature • Controls water balance • Regulates metabolism • An important part of the limbic system (emotions) • The pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus

  38. Epithalamus • Forms the roof of the third ventricle • Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland) • Includes the choroid plexus=forms cerebrospinal fluid

  39. Brain Stem • Attaches to the spinal cord • Parts of the brain stem • Midbrain • Pons • Medulla oblongata

  40. Brainstem • Midbrain • Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers • Has two bulging fiber tracts—cerebral peduncles • Has four rounded protrusions—corpora quadrigemina • Reflex centers for vision and hearing

  41. Brainstem • Pons • The bulging center part of the brain stem • Mostly composed of fiber tracts • Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing • Medulla Oblongata • The lowest part of the brain stem • Merges into the spinal cord • Includes important fiber tracts • Contains important control centers • Heart rate control, blood pressure regulation, breathing, swallowing, vomiting

  42. Reticular Formation • Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem • Involved in motor control of visceral organs • Reticular activiating system plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and consciousness

  43. Cerebellum • 2 hemispheres with convoluted surfaces • Provides involuntary coordination of body movements

  44. Protection of the Central Nervous System • Scalp and skin • Skull and vertebral column • Meninges • Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) • Blood-brain barrier

  45. Meninges • Dura mater • Double-layered external covering • Periosteum-atached to inner surface of the skull • Meningeal layer-outer covering of the brain Folds inward in several areas • Arachnoid layer • Middle layer • Web-like • Pia mater • Internal layer • Clings to the surface of the brain

  46. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) • Similar to blood plasma composition • Formed by the choroid plexus • Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain • Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles and central canal of the spinal cord • HYDROCEPHALUS-condition where CSF accumulates and exerts pressure on the brain if not allowed to drain

  47. Blood-Brain Barrier • Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body • Excludes many potentially harmful substances • Useless as a barrier against some substances • Fats and fat soluble molecules • Respiratory gases • Alcohol • Nicotine • Anesthesia

  48. Traumatic Brain Injuries • Concussion • Slight brain injury • No permanent brain damage • Contusion • Nervous tissue destruction occurs • Nervous tissue does not regenerate • Cerebral edema • Swelling from the inflammatory response • May compress and kill brain tissue

  49. Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA) • Commonly called a stroke • The result of a ruptured blood vessel supplying a region of the brain • Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood source dies • Loss of some functions or death may result

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