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Development across the life span chapter 10. Pages 384 - 432. Lets talk about some famous folks:. Sigmund freud :. Freud (1905) proposed that psychological development in childhood takes place in a series of fixed stages. Freud.
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Development across the life span chapter 10 Pages 384 - 432
Sigmund freud: Freud (1905) proposed that psychological development in childhood takes place in a series of fixed stages.
Freud • These are called psychosexual stages because each stage represents the fixation of libido (roughly translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a different area of the body. As a person grows physically certain areas of their body become important as sources of potential frustration (erogenous zones), pleasure or both. • Freud believed that life was built round tension and pleasure. Freud also believed that all tension was due to the build up of libido (sexual energy) and that all pleasure came from its discharge. • In describing human personality development as psychosexual Freud meant to convey that what develops is the way in which sexual energy accumulates and is discharged as we mature biologically.
Freud • Freud stressed that the first five years of life are crucial to the formation of adult personality. The id must be controlled in order to satisfy social demands; this sets up a conflict between frustrated wishes and social norms. • The ego and superego develop in order to exercise this control and direct the need for gratification into socially acceptable channels. Gratification centers in different areas of the body at different stages of growth, making the conflict at each stage psychosexual.
Freud The Role of Conflict • Each of the psychosexual stages is associated with a particular conflict that must be resolved before the individual can successfully advance to the next stage. • The resolution of each of these conflicts requires the expenditure of sexual energy and the more energy that is expended at a particular stage the more the important characteristics of that stage remain with the individual as he/she matures psychologically.
Freud Oral Stage (0-1 year) • In the first stage of personality development the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands. • Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and breastfeeding. Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. • We see oral personalities all around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviors, particularly when under stress.
Freud Anal Stage (1-3 years) • The libido now becomes focused on the anus and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e. their ego has developed). • Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority.
Freud Phallic Stage (3 to 5 or 6 years) • Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new source of pleasure. • The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls). • This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the characteristics of the same sex parent.
Freud Latency Stage (5 or 6 to puberty) • No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden). • The libido is dormant. Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage and sexual energy can be sublimated (re: defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies and friendships. • Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.
Freud Genital Stage (puberty to adult) • This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's. • Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self pleasure like during the phallic stage. For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop.
Erik Erikson: Erikson trained as a Freudian psychoanalyst but became convinced that social interactions were more important in development than Freud's emphasis on sexual development, believed that development occurred in a series of 8 stages with the first four of these stages occurring in infancy and childhood
Erikson • During his 8 stages each stage presented a kind of emotional crisis (much like Freud’s conflicts) or turning point in personality and the crisis in each stage must be successfully met for normal healthy psychological development. • Erikson focused on the relationship of the infant and the child to significant others in the immediate surroundings parents, and then later teachers and even peers.
Erikson’s 8 stages of development: • 1. Infant birth to one year Trust vs. Mist trust: • Babies learn to trust or mistrust others based on whether or not their needs such as food and comfort are met. • If babies needs are met they learn to trust the people and expect life to be pleasant. • If their needs are notmet they learn not to trust.
Erikson’s 8 stages of development: • 2. Toddler 1 to 3 years old Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. • Toddlers realize that they can direct their own behavior. If toddlers are successful in directing their own behavior they will learn to be independent. • If toddlers attempts at being independent are blocked they learn self doubt and shame for being unsuccessful.
Erikson’s 8 stages of development: • 3. Preschool Age 3 to 5 years old Initiative vs. Guilt. • Preschoolers are challenged to control their own behavior, such as controlling their exuberance when they are in a public place. • If they succeed in taking responsibility they feel capable and develop initiative. • If they fail in taking responsibility they feel irresponsible, anxious and guilty.
Erikson’s 8 stages of development: • 4. Elementary School Age 5 to 12 years old Industry vs. Inferiority. • School aged kids are faced with learning new social and academic skills. Social comparison is a primary source of information. • When kids succeed at learning new skills they develop a sense of industry, a feeling of competence and self esteem arising from their work and effort. • If they fail to develop new abilities they feel incompetent, inadequate, and inferior.
Erikson’s 8 stages of development: • 5. Adolescence 13 to early twenties Identity vs. Role Confusion. • Teens are faces with deciding who or what they want to be in terms of occupation beliefs, attitudes and behavior patters. • People who succeed in this task will have satisfying intimate relationships. • People who fail to define their identity become confused and withdraw or want to inconspicuously blend in with the crowd.
Erikson’s 8 stages of development: • 6. Early Adulthood twenty and thirties Intimacy vs. Isolation. • The task facing those in early adulthood is to be able to share who they are with another person in a close committed relationship. • People who succeed in this task will have satisfying intimate relationships. • Adults who fail at this task will be isolated from other people and may suffer from loneliness.
Erikson’s 8 stages of development: • 7. Middle Adulthood 40’s to 50’s Generativity vs. Stagnation. • The challenges is to be creative, productive, and nurturant of the next generation. • Adults who succeed in this challenge will be creative, productive and nurturing thereby benefiting themselves their family community country and future generations. • Adults who fail will be passive and self centered feel that they have done nothing for the next generation and feel that the world is no better off for their being alive.
Erikson’s 8 stages of development: • 8. Late Adulthood 60’s and beyond Ego integrity vs. Despair. • The issue is whether a person will reach wisdom, spiritual tranquility a sense of wholeness, and acceptance of his or her life. • Elderly people who succeed in addressing this issue will enjoy life and not fear death, they may even welcome death. • Elderly people who fail will feel that their life is empty and will fear death.
Cognitive development: • By the time the average infant has reached the age of 1 year it has tripled its birth weight and added about another foot to its height. The brain triples its weight in the first two years reaching about 75% of its adult weight. • By age 5 the brain is at 90% of its adult weight. This increase makes possible a tremendous amount of major advances in cognitive development, including the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory.
Piaget’s Theory: Four Stages of Cognitive development (take a photo)
In the 1960s and 1970s, as Freudian psychology were rapidly being replaced with more empirical methods of studying human behavior, a Swiss philosopher and psychologist named Jean Piaget stepped in to offer a new experimentally-verified theory of development. • Like Freud, Piaget thought that human development could be described in stages. Unlike Freud, however, Piaget did not believe that growth and learning were driven by repressed sexuality. • Rather, in his experiments with children, adolescents, and young adults, Piaget learned that as we grow, we gradually add new skills to our cognitive repertoire. He described four stages of cognitive development, which are presented below.
Sensorimotor Stage • Sensorimotor Stage: Children at the sensorimotor stage are explorers. They want to see, hear, taste, and touch everything around them. The generally do not appear to be thinking about what they do – no obvious rationale underlies their motives. • Instead, they are reveling in sensory experience and enjoying their own rapidly-improving abilities to move around and take in new experiences.
Sensorimotor Stage • Language at this stage is used for primarily for cataloguing objects in the child’s environment (“doggie!” “truck!”) and for making demands of his or her caregivers. Sensory stimuli are paired up with voluntary motor responses, and sensory/body coordination is established. • Syntax and grammar have not yet been developed, and relations between concepts are vaguely understood at best. It is during the late sensorimotor stage that children learn the concept of “object permanence”: in other words, they learn that objects still exist even if they cannot see them.
Preoperational Stage: • Preoperational Stage: Around age 2, children enter the preoperational stage, where they will learn how to think abstractly, understand symbolic concepts, and use language in more sophisticated ways. • During this stage, children become insatiably curious and begin to ask questions about everything they see. They can imagine people or objects that do not exist (such as a lizard with wings) more readily than younger children, and they like to make up their own games.
Concrete Operational Stage • Concrete Operational Stage: By the time they are 7 years old, children can understand much more complex abstract concepts, such as time, space, and quantity. They can apply these concepts to concrete situations, but they have trouble thinking about them independently of those situations. • Their ideas about time and space are sometimes inconsistent, but a basic logic is present that governs their cognitive operations. Children can learn rules fairly easily, but may have trouble understanding the logical implications of those rules in unusual situations. • In other words, they do not have an abstract “concept” of the rule distinct from its application in a specific context.
Formal Operations Stage • Formal Operations Stage: Children around age 11 start to become capable of more abstract, hypothetical, and theoretical reasoning. • They can apply rules to a variety of situations, and can engage in counterfactual “if-then” reasoning. “Counterfactual” refers to the fact that the “if” is known not to be true, for example “if dogs were reptiles, they would have cold blood.” • A child in the formal operations stage can accept this as valid reasoning, even though the premise is obviously false. At this stage, formal logic becomes possible and verbal explanations of concepts are usually sufficient without demonstration. Strategy-based games become more enjoyable, whereas rote games like “chutes-and-ladders” become repetitive.
Lawrence Kohlberg: Another important aspect in the cognitive advances that occurred in adolescence concerns the teens understanding of right and wrong. Kohlberg was a developmental psychologist who influenced by Piaget and others. He proposed three levels of moral development (the knowledge of right and wrong.
Lawrence Kohlberg Preconventional Morality: • Level of Morality: Typically very young children. • How Rules are understood: The consequences determine morality; behavior that is rewarded is right; that which is punished is wrong. • Example: A child who steals a toy from another child and does not get caught does not see that action as wrong.
Lawrence Kohlberg Conventional morality: • Level of morality: Older children, teens, and most adults. • How rules are understood: Conformity to social norms is right; nonconformity is wrong. • Example: A child criticizes his or her parent for speeding because speeding is against the posted law.
Lawrence Kohlberg Postconventional Morality: • Level of morality: About 20% of the adult population. • How rules are understood: Moral principles determined by the person are used to determine right and wrong and may disagree with societal norms. • Example: A reporter who wrote a controversial story goes to jail rather than reveal the source’s identity.
Harry Harlow: Harlow’s experiments with baby monkeys, and “surrogate mothers” disproved the “cupboard theory” of attachment to caregivers and gave proof to a more intimate and loving attachment.
Harry harlow: • Harlow conducted a series of experiments in 1958 with infant rhesus monkeys and a set of “surrogate mothers.” Two main types of “mothers” were used:1) a wire model containing a bottle to feed the monkey and 2) a terry-cloth model. • Despite the fact that the baby monkeys only received food from the wire mother, all of the monkeys spent more time clinging to and cuddling with the cloth mother- especially when they were frightened • This disproved the prominent theory known as the “cupboard theory” in which it was believed that infants only had an attachment to their mothers because they were the source of food, thus associating the mother with positive feelings. Because of the baby rhesus monkeys’ attachment to the cloth mothers, this led researchers to conclude that attachment and the need for affection was deeper than the need for food
Mary ainsworth: Mary Ainsworth (1913 – 1999) provided the most famous body of research offering explanations of individual differences in attachment.
Mary ainsworth: • Mary Ainsworth came up with a special experimental design to measure the attachment of an infant to the caregiver called the Strange Situation (exposing an infant to a series of leave-takings and returns of the mother and a stranger.) • Through this measurement technique, Ainsworth and another colleague identified four attachment styles.
Mary ainsworth attachment styles: • 1. Secure = infants labeled as secure were willing to get down from their mothers lap when they first entered the room with their mothers. • They explored happily, looking back at their mothers and returning to them every now and then. When the stranger came in, these infants were wary but calm as long as their mother was nearby. • When their mother left, the infant got upset, when the mother returned, the infants approached her, were easily soothed, and were glad to have her back.
Mary ainsworth attachment styles: • 2. Avoidant = in contrast, avoidant babies although somewhat willing to explore did not come back to mother as often as secure babies. • They did not look at the stranger or the mother and reacted very little to her absence or to her return seeming to have no interest or concern.
Mary ainsworth attachment styles: • 3. Ambivalent = means having mixed feelings about something. Ambivalent babies in the study were clinging and unwilling to explore, very upset by the stranger regardless of the mother’s presence, protested mightily when the mother left, and were hard to soothe. • When the mother returned, these babies would demand to be picked up, but at the same time push the mother away or kick her in a mixed reaction to her return.
Mary ainsworth attachment styles: • 4. Disorganized – disoriented = in subsequent studies other researchers found that some babies seemed unable to decide just how they should react to the mothers return. • These disorganized-disoriented infants would approach her but with their eyes turned away from her as if afraid to make eye contact. • In general these infants seemed fearful and showed a dazed and depressed look on their faces.
Issues in studying human development: • The problem in developmental research is that the age of the people in the study should always be an independent variable, but people cannot be randomly assigned to to different age-groups. • The two special designs used in researching age related changes: • Longitudinal design = in which one group of people is followed and assessed at different times as the group ages. • Cross sectional design = in which several different age groups are studied at one time.
Twin studies: • Twins provide a valuable source of information for health and psychological research, as their unique relationship allows researchers to pull apart and examine genetic and environmental influences. Twin study findings have been influential in detecting and treating various diseases and psychological disorders. • How are they able to do this? Twin studies allow researchers to examine the overall role of genes in the development of a trait or disorder. Comparisons between monozygotic (MZ or identical) twins and dizygotic (DZ or fraternal) twins are conducted to evaluate the degree of genetic and environmental influence on a specific trait. MZ twins are the same sex and share 100% of their genes. DZ twins can be the same- or opposite-sex and share, on average, 50% of their genes.
