Valid Claims and Arguments

1. Valid Claims and Arguments Oregon City High School English Dept.

2. Abstract • A common mistake people make when trying to persuade others, or in the course of an argument, is that their claim(s) are not valid. Without valid grounds for making a claim, the claim can be very easily disregarded as an uninformed opinion. As such, it is of extreme importance that students learn to make valid claims and arguments.

3. Validity: well grounded or justifiable. • What is validity—what makes something valid? • A. Grounded in fact and/or logical reasoning. • B. It is rational and reasonable—it DOES NOT suppose extraordinary circumstances. • C. Citation or Quotation or Combo (Data, Fact, Numbers, Studies, etc.). • D. Cannot be easily dismissed. • E. Cannot be said of opposing argument.

4. Logical Claims/Arguments • Logical Claims stand on their own, and are based on simple observations, or by applying logic and reasoning to a given situation (think about using inference and critical thinking). • Example: The sun rose yesterday, today, and everyday before that as long as humans have existed; therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow.

5. Your Turn Using Logic • Given the following information, what is a logical extension or educated guess one could make about the following scenarios? • Half of the cost of garbage pick up is eaten up by gas and equipment. • Isn’t it strange that 51% of all children born are girls? • Mr. Kerr was sure upset today after 5th period. • The Zoo, unfortunately, had to give up its Penguins as a result.

6. Data Supported Claims • Data supported claims use statistical information to serve as a basis for making a claim. This usually comes in the form of a citation or quotation. • A citation or quotation is where the writer takes data, a fact, or an expert’s opinion, etc., to back up their argument or claim. These are some of the most effective and persuasive arguments in the professional world.

7. Citations and Quotations • Citation: when a writer uses data in a paper in their own way, but gives the creator of the data credit. • Example: The penguins were shown to have been exposed to the poison for several months (Grant et al, 87). • Quotation: when a writer takes something someone else said or wrote and uses it in their paper by putting quotations around their exact words. • Example: The penguins, “had been exposed to the poison over the course of 6 months, based on blood and stool samples (Grant et al, 87).”

8. Data Supported Claims • Example: Currently, almost 50% of prison inmates are black, even though African Americans represent only 10% of the U.S. population; therefore, the law enforcement policies of the U.S. and the various states are racist, at least in terms of statistics. • Hint: the statistics are facts, but whether you agree or disagree, the claim could be argued, right?

9. Your Turn Using Data • Read the first article on “Mean Girls.” • Find 2-3 facts or pieces of data in the article that strike you as interesting. • Next (you may work with your table partner) write 2-3 sentences using the information to make a claim. Make sure you either cite or quote the information correctly (ask if you don’t know how).

10. Rhetorical Arguments • Rhetorical arguments are unlike logic or data based claims, in that they rely on two factors: • 1) The reader must agree with your premise. • 2) The language in the argument must be strong, powerful, and convincing. • Question: are rhetorical arguments valid? NOTE: One of the most common forms of rhetoric is when people ask a rhetorical question, like when your parents say, “well are you going to jump off a bridge just because Heather did?”

11. What’s a premise? • A premise is an opinion that you assume your readers agree with, for example: • All men are created equal. • The idea of equality is an idea or concept we take for granted in America—in other words, it is a premise we already agree with. • Thus, in the U.S., arguments are often made based on the premise of equality, but in reality, is it VALID to say that everyone is equal, or not?

12. Rhetorical Questions • NOTE: One of the most common forms of rhetoric is when people ask a rhetorical question, like when your parents say, “well are you going to jump off a bridge just because Heather did?” • A rhetorical question is a question where the answer is obvious—when the question seems to answer itself. • Engagement: turn to a person near you and ask them a rhetorical question.

13. Rhetoric: Strong Language • Example: The Giants, powered by a beast of a defensive line, and led by their fearless, peerless quarterback Eli Manning, manhandled the Patriots on their way to winning the Super Bowl. • Example: If Oregon City High School truly values free speech, then the dress code rules are a clear and egregious attack on our First Amendment rights. • Hint: when using rhetoric, it is important to use strong and powerful language in order to persuade the reader to agree with your claim and premise.

14. Your Turn: Rhetoric/Logic • Now read the CNN article. • Find 2 examples of how the author uses rhetorical language to make a claim or statement that is not technically valid. Explain why? • Find 2 examples where the author uses logical reasoning to make a claim. Save them for discussion. • WARNING: please do not mark the article! Write your answers on a separate piece of paper please! These need to be used more than once!