STUDYGUIDE FOR FINAL:

1. STUDYGUIDE FOR FINAL: Castagna & Ceruzzi

2. Make sure to study your packets. • If you have lost any please see my online resources!!! • Topics you should review include: • Genetics: pedigrees, punnet squares • Evolution: turtles, eggs in nests, diagram about cougars and populations surviving. Who is the fittest? Think Darwin!!! • Bacteria & Viruses: Disease, immunity, diagrams of a bacteria and virus, diagram similar to the one in our lab on disinfectants. • Plants – review your packets • Digestion: diagram, parts of the system and their function. • Skeletal system: Know the bones and the joints! • Circulatory System: THE HEART!!! Know diagram of heart. • Respiratory System: THE LUNGS!!! Know diagram of lungs. • Know about the exchange of gases and where this happens. • Know the function of each body system: For example what does the circulatory system do?

3. Genetic Notes Go online! Miss C has copies of all notes on this topic! Notes include pedigrees and punnet squares!!!

4. Evolution • A variation is a different version of something. To preserve something means to save it. • Charles Darwin, a scientist, said “I have called this principle, by which each slightly variation is useful is preserved, by the term Natural Selection.” • Natural selection – means it’s happening on its own. Vs something that’s artificially selected which is chosen by someone of something. Darwin discussed and created this theory of evolution. Everyone has variations and we preserve them. • Artificial – humans breeding things (GMO’s) • Natural selection – nature breeding on its own (squirrels) • Why can we create things artificially and how can things breed on their own naturally? Because all living things share DNA! DNA is universal which explains why and how we can make GMO’s and how different livings things can breed with one another successfully.

5. More on Darwin: • Charles Darwin – 1800’s a scientist who became an explorer who traveled overseas for 2-3years. He was a collector and became sick after a while. • Evidence for evolution proposed by DARWIN – • Homologous structures- the same structures exist. For example a rat and a cat both have 4 legs. The legs are homologous structures. • Vestigal organs- an organ that is no longer useful. For example the coccyx(tailbone) or the appendix. • Comparative embryology- comparing embryos. Similar biochemistry –comparing hemoglobin molecules (blood) between organisms. Similar DNA – genes were compared by Mendel & DNA was compared by Watson and Crick • The changing earth –how the earth changes and how it continues to change. For example landforms like volcanoes and earthquakes. Darwin looked at how the land changed – erosion & decomposition. • Population growth patterns-are how groups change over time. For example: due to food and what’s available in a population a carrying capacity is always reached. • Geographical similarities in living things- comparing similarities in a close area. Think of the turtles and the islands! • Diversity in living things-differences in all living things • Competition among living things-For example: food or territory • Population size remains relatively consistent-carrying capacity maintains a certain level. For example chipmunks and squirrels.

6. Darwin continued: Darwin’s Conclusions regarding evolution: • Genetic diversity exists • The genetic information is passed from parent to offspring. • Not all genetic information is equally able to allow the organism to survive • The world is constantly changing • Competition exists for basic needs like food, water, territory (shelter), and mates. • Those organisms with the most favorable traits are able to survive. The environment chooses the favorable trait. • Natural selection – (survival of the fittest) only the fittest can survive.

7. Evolution Continued: • The theory of evolution is based upon a collection of facts, observations, and hypotheses about the history of life. Based on facts from what is collected over time! Hypotheses – educated guesses. • Exampleof a hypothesis – If the amount of vinegar increases, then the chalk will dissolve faster. • Evolution is defined as a change in the population over a period of time. Populations are breeding groups that produce offspring. • Major theories of evolution: • Judeo-Christian belief – god created everything in 6 days • Asteroid belief – small microscopic life forms have been found in asteroids in Antarctica.

8. Evolution continued: • Jean Baptiste deLamarck – 1700’s first scientist to believe and develop a theory of evolution based upon populations changing. • Example: a snake changes from a lizard. Legs disappear because they are no longer needed. A snake was once a lizard. Giraffes changed over time and grew a long neck to reach food. He called this USE & DISUSE. The snake is an example of DISUSE the giraffes are an example of USE.

9. Bacteria • All bacteria are classified in the Monera kingdom. Therefore all bacteria are considered prokaryotic. (they have no nucleus) • The typical bacterium: look below. • All bacteria have structures inside. A cell wall is present for protection. Flagella are used for movement. Some bacteria move some do not. Cell membrane is used to allow materials in and out of the cell. Pili (hollow tubes) are used for transferring information from the bacteria to something else. They are used to attach also. Bacteria may need to attach themselves. Ribsomes are present in bacteria because they make protein. Chromosomes are also present where the DNA is found. Density dependent factors like food can influence the growth or lack of growth of bacteria. See the bacteria population below. Bacteria live on everything in any environment. They live in soil, water, air, inside your home, in our bodies, on our skin, in volcanic vents, in/on ice.

10. Bacteria!!!

11. Good bacteria – include decomposers, (they break down waste product, they break down dean organisms) yogurt, cheese, bread. Good bacteria can also be found in our bodies and in the water. Bacteria that are found in the water break down oil.

12. Bacteria can be classified: • By shape • By composition of the cell wall – what is the cell wall made of? Some bacteria have a protein layer others do not. In order to find out if they have a protein layer you can use a stain. Its called “Gram stain” • By the way they move: flagella, non-motile (they do not move) • By the way they eat: autotrophs – they make their own food (photosynthesis-using light) or chemosynthesis (using chemicals) • Bacteria – can be autographs (make their own food) could be through photosynthesis

13. Disease – caused by bacteria • Some are harmful – cause disease • Typhus (bubmic plague/black plague) • Staph infections • Pink eye • Rickets • Scurvy • Antibiotics can cure the bacterial infection. The purpose of these is to kill bacteria! Like in lab! We are measuring the disinfectants. Nutrients, bacteria, heredity, fungus, virus, environment (toxic contamination) are all factors that can cause disease.

14. Viruses • Viruses are classified as obligate, intracellular parasites. Is a virus a living thing? It has DNA, but no cell parts. They are NOT alive because they DO NOT have cell parts! It has some living characteristics but not all of them. Viruses stay in your body; your immune system fights them and can destroy them at times!!!! Sometimes viruses hide, like HERPES & HPV. • Viruses are tiny particles made up of a genetic material (made of DNA) and a protein coat. Viruses are non-living substances. They are parasites they are not alive or dead. • Reproduction of viruses: a genome and other viral structures – replicates once it’s in a cell. Once infected ribosome’s and enzymes help to reproduce the virus.

15. Viruses • Viruses contain DNA, RNA surrounded by a protective coat of protein. Viruses cannot be seen by the naked eye. • They cannot multiple on their own. So they have to invade a HOST cell in order to take over and make more of themselves. Examples of HOSTS: humans & animals • The tail fibers: inject genetic material into the bacterium. The bacterium explodes after it is forced to make copies of the virus. Other diseases called by viruses: • Mono • Herpes • HIV/AIDS • Flu • Chicken pox • Athlete’s foot • HPV/IS A VIRUS THAT CAUSES – the disease cancer (cervical) or WARTS

16. Digestion!!! • The digestive system uses mechanical and chemical digestion to break food down into nutrient molecules that can be absorbed into the blood. Food for the most part consists of various organic macromolecules such as starch, proteins, and fats. These molecules are polymers made of individual monomer units (as discussed earlier in the year). • 2 types of digestion mechanical & chemical • Mechanical – the teeth (break & tear food) • Chemical – stomach and mouth (acid and pepsin in the stomach and enzymes in mouth breaks down food)

20. PLANTS Review your power-point!!!!