Violent and/or sexual offending (key issues & debates, part 1)

1. Violent and/or sexual offending (key issues & debates, part 1) Dr Ann Henry Tues 13th November 2012 Forensic & Applied Cognitive Psychology

2. Previous lecture • Different types of mental illness/ disorder • Criminal Justice System • Treatments in mental health settings

3. Lecture Overview • Risk Assessment (brief overview) • Theories of crime • Sexual Offending – paedophiles & child molestation

4. Risk Assessment • Recidivism – relapse into crime • Risk & dangerousness • Various statistical measures: PCL-R, HCR-20 (Historical, Clinical, Risk), SVR-20 (Sexual Violence Risk) etc. • Risk factors: Static & Dynamic • Static factors (e.g. age, gender, history of violence, personality disorder, major mental illness etc.) • Dynamic factors (e.g. emotional & cognitive disposition, impulsivity, active symptoms of major mental illness, location, associates, lack of support)

5. Theories of Crime • Howitt (2006) outlines a broad range of theories. • Macro-level or Societal • Community or locality • Group & socialisation influence • Individual/ Psychological

6. Macro-level or Societal • Marxist Conflict theory • Merton’s Strain Theory • Feminist Theory

7. Macro-level or Societal • Marxist conflict theory • Society has evolved in a state of conflict between competing groups in society over material resources & institutionalised power. • Dominant class uses laws to control other groups & maintain its command or hegemony (political leadership)

8. Macro-level or Societal • Merton’s Strain Theory • Recognises that society’s goals (prosperity, achievement etc.) are only available to a limited few. The rest can only achieve goals through deviant means. • Others adapt to the strain by retreating into alcoholism, drug addiction, suicide, vagrancy.

9. Macro-level or Societal • Feminist Theory • Holds that criminality is associated with males. Males seek to maintain power in the gendered social system through the deployment of violence against women & children. • Male control is through their access to power over social institutions such as the law. • Powerless men are inclined to the cruder expressions of power which lead to their imprisonment.

10. Community/ locality Theory • Differential Opportunity theory • Explains the patterns of crime likely to be exhibited by individuals in terms of the range of crime opportunities close to home. • Different individuals display different modes of adjustment or adaptation to their particular social strains.

11. Group & Socialisation Influence Theories • Subcultural Delinquency Theories • Differential Association Theory • Lifestyle & Routine Activities Theory • Social Learning Theory • Criminogenic factors in childhood

12. Group & Socialisation Influence Theories • Subcultural Delinquency Theories • Youngsters with problems especially to do with the home & school tend to associate with gangs & other groupings in which they can achieve some status. • Through criminal activity, delinquent groups may provide an opportunity to achieve a sense of self-esteem.

13. Group & Socialisation Influence Theories • Differential Association Theory • Circumstances of upbringing determines their exposure to crime & pressure to commit crime. • Hence, learning to be a criminal applies to different strata of society e.g. middle class might be exposed to fraud, tax evasion etc.

14. Group & Socialisation Influence Theories • Lifestyle & Routine Activities Theory • Argues that most crime is trivial & impulsive – thus elements of opportunism (Cohen & Felson, 1979)

15. Group & Socialisation Influence Theories • Social Learning Theory • Bandura (1973, 1983) Vicarious learning through observing other people. • However, doesn’t explain under what circumstances criminal behaviour will or will not be learnt, so has limited explanatory power.

16. Group & Socialisation Influence Theories • Criminogenic factors in childhood • Glueck & Glueck, 1962, 1968) claim that the following are antecedents of antisocial & criminal behaviour: • Punitive child-rearing practices & attitudes (strict discipline, corporal punishment, authoritarian attitudes) • Lack of love or rejection • Laxness (poor monitoring, lack of supervision) • Family disruption (separation, divorce, instability, marital conflict) • Deviant parental characteristics (criminality, mental health problems, substance abuse)

17. Group & Socialisation Influence Theories • Criminogenic factors in childhood (cont) • Yoshikawa (1995) argued that delinquency is product of interaction of multiplicity of factors: • Neurological & biological factors • Low cognitive ability • Childhood history of antisocial behaviour • Parental substance abuse • Violent or socially disorganised neighbourhoods • Media violence

18. Group & Socialisation Influence Theories • Criminogenic factors in childhood (cont) • Farrington (1996) claims that childhood conduct disorder and adult Antisocial Personality Disorder have the same aetiological precursors: • Low family income • Poor housing • Large family size • Convicted parents • Harsh or erratic parental discipline • Low intelligence • Early school leaving

19. Group & Socialisation Influence Theories • Protective factors from delinquency • Farrington (1998) • Personal Resources – resilient youngsters had better technical/spatial intelligence, flexible temperaments, approach-orientated, more positive self-esteem & active coping styles • Social Resources – resilient youngsters were more satisfied with social support & experienced openness, autonomy & low conflict in their residential institution.

20. Individual/Psychological Theories • Personality Theories • Biological Theories • Attachment Theory • Isomorphism hypothesis

21. Individual/ Psychological Theories • Personality Theories • Eysenck’s biosocial theory emphasises link between biological factors, personality & crime. • High extraversion, high psychoticism & high neuroticism

22. Individual/ Psychological Theories • Biological Theories • Genetics e.g. genetic make-up, brain activity, hormonal imbalances • Evolutionary theory – inherited genes • Body shape type: mesomorph, endomorph & ectomorph • Evidence is contradictory and controversial

23. Individual/Psychological Theories • Attachment theory • Based on John Bowlby’s work in 1950s • Bonding & attachment in infancy & early childhood • Internal Working Model • Different types of attachment: Secure and • Insecure • Ainsworth (1970s)- classified insecure into • Anxious-Avoidant, Anxious-Ambivalent & Disorganised

24. Individual/Psychological Theories • Isomorphism hypothesis • Close relationship between the characteristics of abuse and its effect on the victim. • Widom (1989) explored links between childhood abuse and adult criminality. • Victims of physical abuse have highest rates of violent offences (16% of sample) • Victims of neglect had similar levels of violence (13%) • Controls (not abused as children) had 7% risk of violent offending in adulthood • Hence, evidence is inconclusive & other factors need to be taken into consideration (see previous list re criminogenic factors)

25. Intelligence & Crime • Howitt (2006) summarises that there is little reliable evidence of the link between intelligence level and crime. • Controversial topic as also linked to the debate about race and intelligence.

26. Social constructionism & crime • Constructions of crime • Social • Cultural • Historical

27. Sexual Offending • Media coverage – recent Jimmy Saville case & other cases of paedophilia/ child sexual abuse/ abusers • Extreme hostility & negative stigma towards paedophiles • Recidivism comparatively low • Megan’s law (USA) Megan abducted & murdered in 1994 • Controversial & inconclusive research on role of pornography & sexual offending • Internet paedophiles

28. Types of Sexual Offending • paedophiles & child molesters • Rapists (cover in lecture 4 on Tues 20th Nov)

29. Sexual Offending • Classifications of child molesters (Groth & Birnbaum, 1978) • Fixated Offenders • Developmentally fixated on a permanent or temporary basis. Sexual interest in children rather than adults.

30. Sexual Offending • Regressed Offenders • Men matured in their sexuality but return to an earlier level of psychosexual development. • Psychosexual history shows primary interest in peer aged or adult individuals, rather than younger ones

31. Sexual Offending • How common is paedophilia? • Unclear as depends on definition of sexual abuse used e.g. indecent assault, gross indecency, buggery, intercourse, rape. • Non-paedophile sexual arousal – conflicting findings (Hall et al, 1995) • Youthful offenders • Graves et al (1996) in USA found that up to half of child sexual abuse carried out by persons under age of 21

32. Sexual Offending • Theories of Paedophilia • Preconditions model • Psychotherapeutic/ cognitive model • Sexualisation model • Pathways model

33. Sexual Offending • Preconditions model of child molestation • Araji & Finkelhor (1985) • 1) Emotional congruence with children (lack self-esteem, psychosocially immature, may have need to dominate) • 2) Social arousal by children (child pornography, hormonal abnormalities/ imbalances) • 3) Blockages preventing adult contact (lack effective social skills, problems relating to adult females, repressive sexual socialisation in childhood) • 4) Disinhibition of norms against adult/child sex (offenders may be senile, alcohol may decrease inhibitions, incest-tolerant subculture)

34. Sexual Offending • Psychotherapeutic/ cognitive model • Suggests 4 steps • 1) Cognitive distortions/ distorted thinking e.g. having sex with a child is a good way of an adult teaching a child about sex. Beliefs about sexual nature of children. • 2) Grooming (bribes of sweets, other treats, trips out, threats of violence) • 3) Planning through fantasy • 4) Denial – denying the consequences of their actions

35. Sexual Offending • Sexualisation model • Howitt (1995) Experience of sexual abuse in childhood is a developmental process which can lead to paedophilia. • Early sexual abuse – especially if extreme or repeated - possible sexual experience with peers- adolescent paedophile career – paedophile adult • Controversial theory as women are more likely to be victims of childhood sexual, but less likely to be sexual offenders

36. Sexual Offending • Pathways model (Ward & Siegert, 2002) • Multi-factorial model – combining elements of previous models/ theories • Distal & Proximal factors • Distal factors (predispositions e.g. genetic/ childhood development) • Proximal factors (that might trigger predispositions e.g. environment, negative mood state)

37. Pathways Model • 4 psychological mechanisms • 1) Intimacy & social skills deficits • 2) Deviant sexual scripts • 3) Emotional dysregulation • 4) Cognitive distortions

38. Cognitive dISTORTIONS • Children as sexual objects • Entitlement- to have their sexual needs met • Dangerous world – children seen as reliable & trusting & gives offender comfort against danger • Uncontrollable – claims not to be on control of own actions & blames outside factors e.g. drugs/ alcohol • Nature of Harm – believes not all sexual activity is harmful & children can benefit from sexual activity with adults

39. Sexual Offending • Internet Paedophile offending • Controversial topic – whether linked to contact paedophilia or not • Robbins & Darlington (2003) 27,000 people in the world go onto child pornography sites every day. I million images of child sexual abuse in circulation. • Internet chat rooms • Sexual fantasy vs contact sexual acts with children

40. Lecture Summary • Risk Assessment • Theories of crime • Sexual Offending – paedophiles & child molestation

41. Useful references • Murphy, W.D. & McGrath, R. (2008). • Best Practices in Sex Offender Treatment, Prison Service Journal, issue 178, pgs 3-9. • Strickland, S.M (2008). Female Sex Offenders: Exploring Issues of Personality, Trauma and Cognitive Distortions, J Interpers Violence 2008; 23; p. 474-489. • Towl, G.J., Farrington., D.P., Crighton, D.A. & Hughes, G. (2008). Dictionary of Forensic Psychology, Devon, Willan Publishing. • Ward. T. & Stewart, C. (2003). The relationship between human needs and criminogenic needs, Psychology, Crime & Law, September 2003, Vol. 9(3), pp. 219 /224

42. Next week…Tues 20 Nov • No Lecture on Mon 19th Nov • Rapists • Treatment of Sexual offenders • Violent Offending