INDEX

2. 3 - ERGOGENIC AIDS 4 - ERGOGENIC AIDS 5 - ERGOGENIC AIDS CREATINE 6 - ERGOGENIC AIDS GLUTAMINE 7 - ERGOGENIC AIDS CAFFEINE 8 - ERGOGENIC AIDS ALCOHOL 9 - ERGOGENIC AIDS LEGAL PHYSIOLOGICAL ALTITUDE TRAINING 10 - ERGOGENIC AIDS LEGAL PSYCHOLOGICAL 11 - ERGOGENIC AIDS THERAPIES 12 - ERGOGENIC AIDS MECHANICAL 13 - ERGOGENIC AIDS MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT 14 - ERGOGENIC AIDS CLOTHING 15 - PERFORMANCE-ENHANCING PRODUCTS IN SPORT 16 - A DEFINITION OF ILLEGAL DRUG TAKING… 17 - ILLEGAL ERGOGENIC AIDS 18 - CATEGORIES OF SUBSTANCES USED IN SPORT 20 - ERGOGENIC AIDS ILLEGAL PHYSIOLOGICAL BLOOD DOPING 21 - ERGOGENIC AIDS ILLEGAL PHYSIOLOGICAL rEPO 22 - ERGOGENIC AIDS ILLEGAL PHARMACEUTICAL AMPHETAMINES / BETA BLOCKERS 23 - ERGOGENIC AIDS HGH /ANABOLIC STEROIDS 24 - RECENT DEVELOPMENTS INDEX 26 - WHY TAKE DRUGS IN SPORT? 28 - HOW CAN AN ATHLETE BENEFIT FROM DOPING? 29 - HOW CAN WE STOP ATHLETES FROM DOPING? 30 - HOW DOES DRUG-TESTING WORK? 31 - THE IOC AND DRUG-TAKING 32 - THE ROLE OF THE WORLD ANTI-DOPING AGENCY (WADA) 33 - KEY PRIORITIES FOR WADA 34 - THE WHEREABOUTS RULE 36 - THE ATHLETE PASSPORT

3. ERGOGENIC AIDS

4. ERGOGENIC AID any substance or method which enhances performance the term ergogenic aid includes any method used in training which has this effect including training equipment and nutrition as well as doping and supplementation ERGOGENIC AIDS

5. ERGOGENIC AIDS NUTRITIONAL DIETARY MANIPULATION CREATINE SUPPLEMENTATION • creatine is a substance found in skeletal muscle • and can be obtained from a normal diet - white meat and fish • stored as phosphocreatine (PC) • supplementation increases PC levels to enhance the ATP-PC system of ATP resynthesis • creatine also assists intense anaerobic exercise via muscle rehydration • creatine supplementation delays the alactic / lactic threshold • this is a legal ergogenic aid

6. ERGOGENIC AIDS NUTRITIONAL DIETARY MANIPULATION GLUTAMINE • is an amino acid forming part of skeletal muscle and immune cells • supplementation after exercise therefore reinforces the immune system and reduces the risk of infection • glutamine enhances the process of glycogen synthesis in recovering muscles • glutamine is a legal ergogenic aid

7. ERGOGENIC AIDS NUTRITIONAL DIETARY MANIPULATION CAFFEINE • stimulates the CNS but acts as a diuretic - this can lead to dehydration • used to be illegal in large quantities, rules changed in 2002, when drinking large amounts of coffee became legal again!

8. ERGOGENIC AIDS NUTRITIONAL DIETARY MANIPULATION ALCOHOL • a relaxant in quite small quantities • absorbed into the body as an alternative to water therefore causes dehydration • quite small quantities of alcohol can cause a drastic loss of performance • alcohol is a legal ergogenic aid - but anyone using it as such must be aware of the consequences!

9. ERGOGENIC AIDS LEGAL PHYSIOLOGICAL ALTITUDE TRAINING • a predominantly endurance-based exercise programme used by elite endurance athletes from a range of sports • consisting of 2 visits of at least two weeks duration per visit, to altitude (normally between 1800-3000 metres) • second visit just prior to major competition • training at altitude uses the fact that the body will create more haemoglobin • to compensate for the reduction in oxygen available • benefits: reversible physiological adaptations • increased Hb concentration • increases in myoglobin mitochondria and oxidative enzymes • hence on return to sea level we have an increased VO2max and tissue cell respiration leading to enhanced aerobic performance • risks: hypoxia, altitude sickness

10. ERGOGENIC AIDS LEGAL PSYCHOLOGICAL • imagery / hypnosis / visualisation stimulate mental rehearsal of relevant skills • by activating neural pathways that reinforce skill • many athletes use music via ipod etc • to stimulate rhythm of an activity • or to produce calmness prior to an activity requiring control at full effort

11. ERGOGENIC AIDS LEGAL PHYSIOLOGICAL THERAPIES • physiotherapy / acupuncture / herbal medicines used in injury treatment • also used to reduce muscle soreness (DOMS) and aid recovery of local damaged tissue • ice baths and ice belts to reduce joint and muscle inflammation produced by microtears in tissue produced by intense training • ice / cooling jackets to attempt to reduce core temperature in very hot conditions (see tennis players in long hot matches) the Australian rowing eight at the Atlanta Olympics 1996 wearing ice jackets during the final

12. ERGOGENIC AIDS MECHANICAL NASAL STRIPS • use of sticky plaster placed over bridge of nose to enlarge nasal cavity • enables easier breathing SPECIALIST EQUIPMENT • carbon fibre bike frames are lighter and aerodynamically more efficient • bike helmets are shaped to reduce drag / air resistance

13. ERGOGENIC AIDS MECHANICAL SPECIALIST EQUIPMENT • specialist training machines specific to the sport • concept II ergo rower • swimming ergo • flumes for rowing / swimming / canoeing • treadmill • spinning bikes with varying loading • resistance training equipment such as weight training machines or pulley machines (with stacks or hydraulic) • many of these are now designed to mimic the sports movement • which make the movement specific to the sport • towing sledges / parachutes to increase resistance for running • hypobaric (low pressure / low oxygen / hypoxic) chambers, to have similar effects as altitude training

14. ERGOGENIC AIDS MECHANICAL SPECIALIST CLOTHING • lycra sports clothing reduces air resistance (cycling and sprinting) • special shark suits for the swimmers - reduce drag • swim hats reduce drag on the head • compression clothing • (rubber belts or strapping) to increase hydrostatic pressure within body part • one shoulder javelin suit • bench press suits • squatting suits • weight lifting belts • force from the pressure supports the tissue enclosed from the inside

15. PERFORMANCE-ENHANCING PRODUCTS IN SPORT • the following slides look at doping as a deviant feature of sports behaviour • and: • give a summary of illegal ergogenic aids (doping) • discuss the ethics of doping • discuss the testing procedures in place to deter drug cheats

16. the International Olympic Committee considers doping to be: ‘the administration of or use by a competing athlete of any substance foreign to the body or any physiological substance taken in abnormal quantity or taken by abnormal route of entry into the body with the sole intention of increasing in an artificial and unfair manner his / her performance in a competition’ A DEFINITION OF ILLEGAL DRUG TAKING - DOPING

17. ILLEGAL ERGOGENIC AIDS

18. CATEGORIES OF SUBSTANCES USED IN SPORT… type of substance ergogenic effects health risks sports used in stimulants e.g. amphetamines, ephedrine reduce fatigue, increase alertness & aggression, suppresses appetite can cause lasting tissue & organ damage, masks injury, addiction, death(!) cycling, boxing, rugby rHGH recombinant human growth hormone (cloned through genetic engineering) stimulate naturally occurring HGH: increases blood glucose, protein synthesis, lean body mass, bone growth enhances healing muscle/joint weakness, acromegaly causes bone thickening of hands, feet and jaw, diabetes, enlargement of organs, heart dis. explosive events – sprinting, weight lifting, swimming anabolic steroid related to naturally occurring hormone testosterone e.g. testosterone, nandrolone increases protein synthesis, fat free mass (FFM) strength, power reduces recovery time between sessions, promotes aggressiveness liver damage, cardiovascular diseases, acne, pituitary failure, testicular atrophy, excessive aggressive behaviour outside the activity explosive events – sprinting, weight lifting, swimming

19. CATEGORIES OF SUBSTANCES USED IN SPORT… ergogenic effects type of substance health risks sports used in diuretics e.g. triamterene, bendrofluazide reduces weight quickly, hence increasing urine flow also used as a masking agent dehydration and heat loss impairment loss of water soluble vitamins used by gymnasts and combat sports where there are bodyweight categories rEPO recombinant erythropoietin cloned through genetic engineering rEPO is a form of blood doping mimics body’s naturally occurring hormone EPO that stimulates red blood cell production, increasing aerobic capacity, aids recovery in endurance events reduces production of naturally occurring EPO major risk of thrombosis and heart failure due to increase blood viscosity reduces resting heart rate to dangerously low level during sleep any endurance activity, distance cycling (Tour de France), marathon running beta blockers class of hormonal drugs e.g. atenolol, propanalol shooting, archery, snooker, darts blocks transmission of SNS to reduce HR and BP to give calming effect dangerously low HR could lead to heart failure

20. ERGOGENIC AIDS ILLEGAL PHYSIOLOGICAL BLOOD DOPING • this practice refers to any method by which the total volume of red blood cells can be increased • the original method involved the removal of athlete’s own blood which is then stored • the athlete’s body then remanufactures blood to replace that taken • then the stored blood is reinfused • this temporarily increases red blood cell count (polycythemia) • problem of mis-matching can lead to a transfusion reaction • increases VO2max and hence energy delivery to enhance aerobic performances • the method includes the use of rEPO - see next slide

21. ERGOGENIC AIDS ILLEGAL PHYSIOLOGICAL EPO (erythropoietin) is a hormone that stimulates red blood cell production rEPO (recombinant erythropoietin) is cloned through genetic engineering • involves infusion of hormone recombinant erythropoietin 6 weeks prior to major event • stimulating erythrocytes (up to 10% more) - red blood cells • increases VO2max and hence energy delivery to enhance aerobic performances • but elevates red blood cell production that can reach toxic life-threatening levels • other risks are blood clots, strokes / coronary thrombosis, very low resting heart rates • there have been many test failures for this substance in Tour de France cyclists and distance runners

22. ERGOGENIC AIDS ILLEGAL PHARMACEUTICAL AMPHETAMINES • act as CNS stimulants to increase arousal levels BETA BLOCKERS • reduce HR and BP thereby reducing tension, but can lead to heart failure

23. ERGOGENIC AIDS ILLEGAL PHARMACEUTICAL HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE (HGH) • stimulates bone growth and increased lean body mass • give artificial increased strength / power outputs ANABOLIC STEROIDS • increase lean body mass, but reduce natural secretions of gonadotrophins • females acquire masculine features such as facial and body hair and deep voices • give artificial increased strength / power outputs

24. genetic engineering modern technology allows us to manipulate human genes to make them more powerful / more efficient than average genes this form of performance enhancement is seen by both WADA and the IOC as being illegal laboratories in various countries are continuously working to devise new substances which cannot be tested by current drug tests RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

25. gene doping uses the injection of foreign genes via a virus into the target cells example:insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is a protein that is important in promoting the growth of skeletal muscle this protein is used to treat muscle-wasting disorders, such as muscular dystrophy injected into an athlete, such a virus could carry a performance-enhancing gene and splice it into a muscle cell to increase muscle mass and achieve increased muscle hypertrophy DOPING METHODS - RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

26. the notion that athletes participate in sport ‘for the love of the game’ has dramatically faded in recent years with the promise of fame and wealth for successful athletes, it is little wonder that performers are persuaded to illegally enhance their performance put simply, athletes take drugs in order to win WHY TAKE DRUGS IN SPORT?

27. another fallacy widely put forward by the less successful sportsperson: is that you have to take drugs to succeed ‘because everyone at the top must be taking drugs’ people who believe this cannot believe that someone else may be better than they are!!! WHY TAKE DRUGS IN SPORT?

28. HOW CAN AN ATHLETE BENEFIT FROM DOPING? the ability to train harder an increased chance of success ? an increase in aggression weight control muscle hypertrophy to control nerves becoming faster or stronger

29. HOW CAN WE STOP ATHLETES FROM DOPING? liaison between relevant organisations random testing education programmes – for players & coaches strict punishments ? unified NGB policies more money & research into testing programmes use of both positive & negative role models

30. HOW DOES DRUG-TESTING WORK? athletes chosen for test athlete produces urine or blood sample urine / blood sent for testing sample tested positive negative investigation by NGB no further action athlete must provide explanation sample usually destroyed NGB hearing, athlete to plead case but sometimes kept for testing later punishment if found guilty

31. the IOC has taken a unified stance against performance-enhancing drugs a list of illegal drugs has been published, laboratories have been accredited for their consistent & precise testing of drugs the IOC also sponsors conferences regarding the topic of drug-taking THE IOC AND DRUG-TAKING

32. WADA is an international independent organisation, based in Montreal, Canada established in 1999 it promotes, co-ordinates and monitors the movement against doping and drug-taking in sport it is funded by the sports movement & governments of the world WADA coordinated the world anti-doping code, which brings together anti-doping policies in sports across the world THE ROLE OF THE WORLD ANTI-DOPING AGENCY (WADA)

33. adoption, implementation & compliance of the world anti-doping code promoting global research to identify & detect doping substances developing & maintaining an anti-doping system (Adams) aiding the co-ordination of regional anti-doping organisations leading effective education programmes to prevent doping in sport educating international level athletes regarding doping enabling stakeholders to fulfil responsibilities of random, out of competition testing KEY PRIORITIES FOR WADA

34. the British Olympic Committee and UK sport have a widespread random drug testing programme to miss two of these random tests results in sanctions and to miss for a third time produces an automatic one year ban this happened to Christine Ohuruogu – World and Olympic champion in track and field athletics this was in spite of her passing many other tests during the period when this was happening she was forced to miss the 2006 season during her ban THE WHEREABOUTS RULE

35. under the WADA rules brought in January 1st 2009, athletes in all Olympic sports are required to state 3 months in advance their locations for 1 hour per day, 7 days a week this is the time during which random testing could take place this is called the ‘whereabouts rule’ and this rule has provoked anger from tennis players, such as Andy Murray, Rafael Nadal and Roger Federer, who feel that the European Union privacy law has been breached in season, testing normally takes place after competitions or matches THE WHEREABOUTS RULE

36. WADA has introduced the “Athlete Passport” which contains an on-going collection of an individual’s urine and blood profiles which have so far been collected and tested during the international athlete’s performance lifespan samples are stored and then made available for retro-testing when appropriate it is projected that future profile collection could include endocrine information http://www.wada-ama.org/en/Resources/Q-and-A/Athlete-Passport/ THE ATHLETE PASSPORT